11月的一天，1532年，新世界与旧世界相撞？ One day in November, 1532, the New World and the old world collided?
168名西班牙人攻击印加帝国军队 168 Spaniards attacked the imperial army of the Incas
在秘鲁高原地区。 in the highlands of Peru.
前一天的时候，他们屠杀了7000人， Before the day was out, they had massacred 7,000 people,
并采取控制的印加帝国。 and taken control of the Inca Empire.
没有一个西班牙的生活在这个过程中丢失了。 Not a single Spanish life was lost in the process.
为什么新旧世界之间的力量如此不平衡？ Why was the balance of power so uneven between Old World and New?
又为何在其后的年代， And why, in the centuries that followed,
是欧洲人征服了如此多的地方？ were Europeans the ones who conquered so much of the globe?
这些问题令贾德戴蒙教授着迷。 These are questions that fascinate Professor Jared Diamond.
他是在寻求了解权力的基础， He is on a quest to understand the roots of power,
在最不可能的地方寻找线索 searching for clues in the most unlikely places.
他制定了原有理论高度 He developed a highly original theory
获奖者分开的东西 从输家是土地本身： that what separates the winners from the losers is the land itself:
地理。 Geography.
这是大陆的形状， It was the shape of the continents,
他们的农作物和动物 their crops and animals
允许一些文化蓬勃发展， 而另一些则落在后面。 that allowed some cultures to flourish, while others were left behind.
但这种方式看世界 有助于阐明事件的1532？ But can this way of seeing the world shed light on the events of 1532?
怎样才能解释地理 征服世界 How can geography explain the conquest of the world
由枪炮，病菌和钢铁？ by guns, germs and steel?
的的标题：第2集：征服</乙> </我> Titles: Episode 2: Conquest
两年来，乐队 西班牙征服者 For two years, a band of Spanish conquistadors
一直在旅行 寻找黄金和荣耀。 has been traveling in search of gold and glory.
他们e不是专业军人， 但雇佣军和冒险， They抮e not professional soldiers, but mercenaries and adventurers,
由一名退休的军队 队长弗朗西斯科皮萨罗。 led by a retired army captain, Francisco Pizarro.
他已经发了横财，为自己 在中美洲的殖民地。 He抯 already made a fortune for himself in the colonies of Central America.
现在，他以他的部下 南部，进入未知的领域。 Now he抯 taking his men south, into unknown territory.
他们是第一批欧洲人 已经爬上了安第斯山脉， They are the first Europeans to have climbed the Andes,
至此，携入 南美洲大陆。 and ventured this far into the continent of South America.
当他们的旅行，他们发现的证据 一个大的本土文明。 As they travel, they find evidence of a large native civilization.
他们e达成的边缘 印加帝国的强大。 They抳e reached the edge of the mighty Inca Empire.
对于印第安人和西班牙人一样， 任何一个遇到的是文化冲突。 For Indians and Spaniards alike, any encounter is a clash of cultures.
这些印度人从未 看到白人面前， These Indians have never seen white men before,
而且不知道的 他们所代表的威胁。 and have no idea of the threat they represent.
他们可以想象在几天之内， They can抰 imagine that within a few days,
这些陌生人会变成 他们的世界颠倒了。 these strangers will turn their world upside down.
到了1530年代，印加帝国是巨大的。 By the 1530s, the Inca Empire was enormous.
它伸出的长度沿安第斯山脉， It stretched along the length of the Andes,
从现代厄瓜多尔中央 智利，一个距离 2500英里。 from modern-day Ecuador to central Chile, a distance of 2,500 miles.
但只有500英里的北 But just 500 miles to the north
中央殖民地开始 美洲和加勒比地区 began the colonies of Central America and the Caribbean
珍贵的财产了西班牙帝国。 prized possessions of the Spanish empire.
当时，西班牙国王 控制欧洲大陆的三分之一， At the time, the Spanish king controlled a third of mainland Europe,
但西班牙本身只 最近成为一个统一的国家， but Spain itself had only recently become a unified state,
拥有 700年击退 伊斯兰摩尔人占领。 having fought off 700 years of occupation by Islamic Moors.
这仍然是一个农村的社会。 It was still a rural society.
大部分来自乡村的征服者 和小城镇的心脏的国家; Most of the conquistadors came from villages and small towns in the heart of the country;
城镇像特鲁希略，皮萨罗在那里长大。 towns like Trujillo, where Pizarro grew up.
他花了不少他的童年在这里， He spent much of his childhood here,
工作作为一个猪倌 在田野附近。 working as a swineherd in the fields nearby.
今天，他记得，一个伟大的战士。 Today he抯 remembered as a great warrior.
他的雕像主宰 主要广场特鲁希略， His statue dominates the main square in Trujillo,
和他家里有 被改造成了博物馆。 and his family home has been turned into a museum.
贾德戴蒙已经来到这里 探索世界的征服者， Jared Diamond has come here to explore the world of the conquistadors,
并了解他们成功的秘诀。 and understand the secret of their success.
这是弗朗西斯科皮萨罗 This is Francisco Pizarro,
西班牙人征服谁最强大 在新世界国家，印加帝国。 a Spaniard who conquered the most powerful state in the New World, the Inca Empire.
为什么皮萨罗和他的手下征服 印加人，而不是相反？ Why did Pizarro and his men conquer the Incas instead of the other way round?
这似乎是一个简单的问题。 It seems like a simple question.
答案不是很立即明显。 The answer isn抰 immediately obvious.
毕竟，皮萨罗开始了 作为一个相当普通的人， After all, Pizarro started out as a rather ordinary person,
和特鲁希略在这里是一个相当普通的小镇。 and Trujillo here is a rather ordinary town.
那么什么才是了皮萨罗 和他的部下这种巨大的力量？ So what is it that gave Pizarro and his men this enormous power?
为什么我这么感兴趣 皮萨罗征服者？ Why am I so interested in Pizarro抯 conquistadors?
因为他们的故事是这样一个冷酷 成功的例子，欧洲的征服。 Because their story is such a grimly successful example of European conquest.
而30年来我一直e 探索模式的征服。 And for 30 years I抳e been exploring patterns of conquest.
贾德戴蒙是教授 在洛杉矶加州大学洛杉矶分校。 Jared Diamond is a professor at UCLA in Los Angeles.
但最主要的有他的科幻eldwork 已完成在巴布亚新几内亚。 But most of his fi eldwork has been done in Papua New Guinea.
他的时间有启发他探讨 不平等的根源在现代世界。 His time there inspired him to explore the roots of inequality in the modern world.
为了理解为什么有些人被 能够支配和征服他人。 To understand why some people have been able to dominate and conquer others.
回顾过去数千年， Looking back thousands of years,
他认为，农业提出了一些 文化的巨大领先优势， he argues that farming gave some cultures an enormous head start,
和那些谁有幸有 最有生产力的农作物和动物 and those who were lucky enough to have the most productive crops and animals
成为最有生产力的农民。 became the most productive farmers.
发达国家在农业第一部分 被称为中东肥沃的新月。 Agriculture first developed in a part of the Middle East known as the Fertile Crescent.
随着时间的推移，作物和动物 从肥沃新月 Over time, crops and animals from the Fertile Crescent
传播到北非和欧洲， spread into North Africa and Europe,
他们触发了 爆炸文明。 where they triggered an explosion of civilization.
到了16世纪， 欧洲的农场占主导地位 By the 16th Century, European farms were dominated
禽畜动物有 来自新月沃地。 by livestock animals that had come from the Fertile Crescent.
都不是原产于欧洲。 None were native to Europe.
他们提供的不仅仅是肉。 They provided more than just meat.
他们是源奶 和羊毛，皮革和有机肥。 They were a source of milk and wool, leather and manure.
更为关键的，他们提供的肌肉力量。 And crucially, they provided muscle power.
驾驭一个犁，马或牛 Harnessed to a plough, a horse or an ox
可以改造 生产力的农田。 could transform the productivity of farmland.
欧洲农民能够 种植更多的粮食来养活更多的人， European farmers were able to grow more food to feed more people,
谁可以形成更大的 和更复杂的社会。 who could then build bigger and more complex societies.
在新的世界，有 没有马或牛的养殖。 In the New World, there were no horses or cattle for farming.
所有工作都必须用手来完成。 All the work had to be done by hand.
国内唯一的大型动物是 在美洲驼，但这些温驯的动物 The only large domestic animal was the llama, but these docile creatures
从来没有被充分利用，以一犁。 have never been harnessed to a plough.
印加人很熟练 在种植土豆和玉米， The Incas were very skilled at growing potatoes and corn,
但由于其地理，他们可以 从来没有被视为欧洲农民生产的。 but because of their geography, they could never be as productive as European farmers.
马给了欧洲人 另一大优势， Horses gave Europeans another massive advantage,
他们可以骑。 they could be ridden.
对于印加人的视线 皮萨罗的征服者 To the Incas, the sight of Pizarro抯 conquistadors
穿过他们的土地是非凡的。 passing through their land is extraordinary.
他们从来没有看到有人e 由以前的动物。 They抳e never seen people carried by their animals before.
有人认为他们是神， 这些奇怪的男子， Some think they are gods, these strange-looking men,
一部分人，一部分野兽。 part human, part beast.
马匹似乎 如此奇特的印加人 The horses that seemed so exotic to the Incas
已被使用 4000年在西班牙。 had already been used in Spain for 4,000 years.
在1岁前的机动交通工具， In an age before motorized transport,
他们允许人们随意移动， they allowed people to be mobile,
和控制他们的土地。 and control their land.
当哈维尔马丁不放牧牛，他 使传统的马术显示。 When Javier Martin is not herding cattle, he gives displays of traditional horsemanship.
这种风格的骑马被称为吉梅塔。 This style of riding is known as jimeta.
重点是控制 和可操作性， The emphasis is on control and maneuverability,
弯曲膝盖用握 双方的马， using bent knees to grip the sides of the horse,
只有一只手的缰绳。 and only one hand on the reins.
非常不同，更 正式文体的中世纪骑士。 Very different from the more formal style of medieval knights.
到了16世纪， By the 16th century,
骑马的吉梅塔方式已成为 主导风格的西班牙骑兵。 the jimeta way of riding had become the dominant style of the Spanish cavalry.
这是怎样的征服者 会骑自己的马。 This is how the conquistadors would have ridden their horses.
它一个惊人的大展示 动物被人所控制， It抯 an amazing display of a big animal being controlled by a person,
精确的控制，停止 并开始和车削。 precise control, stopping and starting and turning.
哈维尔告诉我说，他已 因为他骑了5岁， Javier told me that he has been riding since he was five years old,
当我看到这一点， and when I watched this,
我有一个更好的了解情况 未来的征服者是从。 I have a better understanding where the conquistadors were coming from.
他们对这些技术的主人， They were masters of these techniques,
他们学会了这些 技术与公牛队， and they learned these techniques for working with bulls,
但技术也不错 在军事方面，也 but the techniques were also good in a military context as well,
我可以看到，这种控制会 让你骑下来的人在公开。 and I can see that this control would let you ride down people in the open.
人谁从未见过马前 People who had never seen horses before
本来绝对 害怕看到这一点。 would have been absolutely terrified watching this.
这将是奇怪和可怕的， It would be strange and frightening,
而甚至在其中一个 动物是急于向你， and that抯 even before one of these animals is rushing towards you,
骑你，约 向你和枪杀了你。 riding you down, about to lance you and kill you.
新闻的神圣的陌生人 其四条腿的动物 News of the godlike strangers on their four-legged animals
是由皇家信使 对皇帝的印加人， is taken by royal messenger to the emperor of the Incas,
谁在山谷中扎营 在秘鲁北部的卡哈马卡， who抯 camped in the valley of Cajamarca in northern Peru,
由军队把守的80,000人。 guarded by an army of 80,000 men.
Ataxalpa是被尊为活着的上帝， 儿子的太阳本身。 Ataxalpa is revered as a living god, a son of the sun itself.
他在卡哈马卡一个宗教撤退， He抯 in Cajamarca on a religious retreat,
感谢给予了一系列 最近的军事胜利。 giving thanks for a series of recent military triumphs.
当他听到了 在西班牙人的进展， When he hears about the progress of the Spaniards,
他选择不把他们打死。 he chooses not to have them killed.
相反，他发回的消息。 Instead, he sends back a message.
他邀请他们加入他在 卡哈马卡，尽快。 He invites them to join him in Cajamarca, as quickly as possible.
Ataxalpa希望西班牙人来 到卡哈马卡，进入了一个陷阱， Ataxalpa wanted the Spaniards to come to Cajamarca and enter into a trap,
并确信他们将这样做; and to be sure that they would do so;
他喜欢玩游戏的心理 其中，送礼物，请他们来。 he played like a psychological game with them, sending presents, asking them to come.
Ataxalpa知道 西班牙人不是神。 Ataxalpa knew that the Spaniards were not gods.
情报报告的发言 人们穿着羊毛他们脸上， The intelligence reports speak of people wearing wool on their faces,
像羔羊或类似的羊驼毛， 他们e就像一个动物。 like a lamb or like an alpaca, they抮e just like an animal.
然后，他们就从一个地方到 其他穿着他们的头顶部 Then they went from one place to the other wearing on top of their heads
一小壶已 从未被用于烹调。 a little pot that has never been used for cooking.
你必须疯狂走路锅， You need to be crazy to walk with a pot,
但你必须超越 如果你得救到达一个营地 but you must be beyond salvation if you arrive to a camp
和你不使用该锅做饭。 and you don抰 use that pot to cook.
Ataxalpa有一个想法， 这些人分人类。 Ataxalpa had an idea that these were sub-humans.
什么可以几个骑兵和100 或让西班牙人做强大的印加？ What could a few horsemen and a hundred or so Spaniards do to the powerful Inca?
几乎没有。 Virtually nothing.
但Ataxalpa间谍穿上 认识到西班牙 But Ataxalpa抯 spies don抰 realize that the Spanish
正在与一些武装 在世界上最好的武器。 are armed with some of the best weapons in the world.
当时的征服者， 西班牙在欧洲最大的军队， At the time of the conquistadors, Spain had the biggest army in Europe,
从策划 帝国首都托莱多。 orchestrated from the imperial capital, Toledo.
在超过 700年的 西班牙人已在战争中， For more than 700 years the Spaniards had been at war,
对抗的是摩尔人 和其他欧洲军队。 fighting against the Moors and other European armies.
有一个在欧洲的军备竞赛。 There was an arms race in Europe.
为了生存，需要不断的西班牙人 与最新的武器技术。 To survive, the Spaniards needed to keep up with the latest in weapons technology.
到1530年代时，雅各布是一个 重要的一部分，西班牙兵工厂。 By the 1530s, the Jacobus was an important part of the Spanish arsenal.
火药最初来自中国， Gunpowder had originally come from China,
但其使用的武器 是由阿拉伯人首创。 but its use as a weapon was pioneered by the Arabs.
在欧洲的手，枪成为 更轻，更便携， In European hands, guns became lighter and more portable,
并用于一路走来时间 徒步士兵在战场上。 and were used for the fi rst time by foot soldiers on the battlefield.
该杰科布斯仍是原油的武器，但 将继续改变面对战争。 The Jacobus was still a crude weapon, but would go on to change the face of warfare.
对我们来说，现代人，这把枪 没有按似乎有用的东西， To us, moderns, this gun doesn抰 seem useful for anything,
它像一个笑话。 it抯 like a joke.
其目的是可怕的，它 需要较长的时间来重新加载， Its aim is terrible, it takes a long time to reload,
虽然它的射手重装 一剑客将进来，杀死他， and while the shooter抯 reloading it a swordsman would come in and kill him,
但即使得到了印加人涂药 这一步，即使是这种枪， but the Incas hadn抰 even gotten this far, and even this gun,
其声音与 气味和烟 with its sound and with the smell and with the smoke
与每一个现在，然后一 它所管理的人杀死， and with every now and then a person that it manages to kill,
本来可怕的人 谁从未见过这样的情况。 would have been terrifying to someone who had never seen this before.
这将是 震惊和敬畏，1532年的风格。 This would have been shock and awe, 1532 style.
对于所有的咆哮，技术 火药仍处于起步阶段。 For all its bluster, the technology of gunpowder was still in its infancy.
真正的权力奠定了征服者 其他地方，与生产的钢材。 The real power of the conquistadors lay elsewhere, with the production of steel.
托莱多有一些最好的 剑铁匠在世界上。 Toledo had some of the best sword smiths in the world.
但为什么这里的人们能 以钢铁工艺致命武器， But why were people here able to craft deadly steel weapons,
而印加人仍 制作简单的青铜工具？ while the Incas were still making simple bronze tools?
没有什么天赋 对欧洲人自己辉煌 There was nothing innately brilliant about Europeans themselves
这样可以使它们成为 使高质量的剑。 that allowed them to be the ones to make high quality swords.
正如有枪，剑是 结果一个漫长的过程审判 Just as with guns, swords were the result of a long process of trial
并开始在欧洲以外的错误。 and error that began outside Europe.
人们开始与金属 肥沃的新月7000年前， People started working with metal in the Fertile Crescent 7,000 years ago,
由于欧洲在地理 靠近肥沃的新月， and because Europe is geographically close to the Fertile Crescent,
欧洲人继承了这种金属的技术。 Europeans inherited this metal technology.
但是，他们采取这一 技术到一个新的水平。 But they took this technology on to a new level.
欧洲士兵要求 更强，更长，更清晰的剑。 European soldiers demanded stronger, longer, sharper swords.
这是一个托莱多剑 看起来就像当它完成。 This is what a Toledo sword looks like when it抯 finished.
这种特殊的一个是仿照 皮萨罗的剑进行。 This particular one is modeled on the sword that Pizarro carried.
它一个可怕的武器。 It抯 a fearsome weapon.
它用于刺伤和 它也可用于削减， It抯 used for stabbing and it抯 also used for slashing,
我可以很容易理解如何 挥舞着剑的人 and I can easily understand how the person wielding the sword
可以杀死几十名 人民在很短的时间。 could kill dozens of people within a short time.
剑这样，剑杆， Swords like this, rapiers,
代表了在一个非常高点 先进的金属加工技术。 represented a high point in a very sophisticated metalworking technology.
你认为什么素质 都是一些需要一把剑。 You think about what the qualities are that are needed in a sword.
首先，它必须努力不够， First of all, it has to be hard enough,
金属要硬 采取足够锋利的边缘， the metal has to be hard enough to take a sharp edge,
这要求钢 是铁充满了碳， and that requires steel that is iron infused with carbon,
和你把更多的碳进入 铁，则是更难的金属。 and the more carbon you put into the iron, then the harder the metal is.
但如果你太辛苦， But if you make it too hard,
那么脆，而且没有 一件好事，因为当你击中的人， then it抯 brittle, and that抯 no good because as you hit somebody,
你的剑将打破， your sword would break,
所以你也需要你的剑 有一定的柔韧性， and so you also need your sword to have a certain pliability,
弯曲的能力和 春回的形状。 an ability to bend and spring back into shape.
它得到加热到一定的 温度，它暴跌到冷水， And it抯 got by heating it to certain temperatures, plunging it into cold water,
数额巨大的实验， immense amount of experimentation,
它用了几个世纪去 的先进水平 it took centuries to get to the level of sophistication
在这里您可以得到的东西，只要和 优雅和罚款，和致命的剑杆织机。 where you could get something so long and elegant and fine, and deadly as the rapier.
剑杆织机，其超长刀片， 是作为一个决斗的武器， The rapier, with its extra long blade, was developed as a dueling weapon,
但变得如此时髦 欧洲文艺复兴时期; but became so fashionable in Renaissance Europe;
这是剑的选择 对于任何有抱负的君子。 it was the sword of choice for any aspiring gentleman.
这个词源于剑杆织机 西班牙长期spara ropera？ The word rapier derives from the Spanish term 揺spara ropera?
这意味着衣服的剑。 and that means dress sword.
并第一次在西班牙， And for the first time in Spain,
我们开始看到人们穿着 剑与日常服装， we start to see people wearing the sword with their everyday clothing,
他们穿便装，去 他们的日常业务。 their civilian dress, going about their everyday business.
他们 didn做，在中世纪。 They didn抰 do that in the Middle Ages.
这是新的东西在16 世纪，它说我已经到达， This is something new in the 16th century, and it抯 saying I have arrived,
我是一个绅士， I am a gentleman,
我向上移动， I am upwardly mobile,
和我要求的祖先从 骑士的中世纪。 and I claim ancestry from the knights of the Middle Ages.
这是一个很有象征的 征服者？抱负的贪婪。 It was very much a symbol of the conquistadors?aspiring greed.
驱使他们的东西 通过所有的辛苦， The thing that drove them through all their hardships,
这样一个东西，使他们到 美洲，是他们对黄金的欲望， the thing that made them go to the Americas, was their lust for gold,
他们的欲望的自我发展， their lust for self-advancement,
剑杆织机和绝对象征 and the rapier absolutely symbolized
这咄咄逼人的贪婪。 that overbearing avarice.
关于 1532年11月15日， On November 15th 1532,
皮萨罗波段冒险家 进入山谷的卡哈马卡。 Pizarro抯 band of adventurers entered the valley of Cajamarca.
他们e获悉 Ataxalpa 正在等待他们。 They抳e been told that Ataxalpa is waiting for them here.
但是，他们不准备e 他们的首映眼帘。 But they抮e not prepared for the sight that greets them.
在丘陵超出镇 印加帝国的卡哈马卡是军队， In the hills beyond the town of Cajamarca is the imperial Inca army,
80000人全部战斗序列。 80,000 men in full battle order.
该征服者？自己的期刊承担 见证他们的第一印象。 The conquistadors?own journals bear witness to their first impressions.
他们的营地看上去像 一个非常美丽的城市。 Their camp looked like a very beautiful city.
我们看到它在想什么 印度直到那时，它害怕我们， We抎 seen nothing like it in the Indies until then, and it scared us,
因为我们是如此之少 并在这片土地如此之深。 because we were so few and so deep in this land.
皮扎罗发送一个党他最好的 骑手进入心脏的印加营地。 Pizzaro sends a party of his best horsemen into the heart of the Inca camp.
它们是由船长带领德索托。 They are led by Captain De Soto.
他们是赌博，Ataxalpa将使 他们穿过营地安然无恙， They are gambling that Ataxalpa will allow them to pass through the camp unharmed,
并同意会见他们。 and agree to meet them.
索托访问有一个很 重要的心理目的; Soto抯 visit had a very important psychological purpose;
恐吓的印加 在他前面的人。 to intimidate the Inca in front of his people.
他与马具有挑战性。 Challenging him with the horse.
Ataxalpa首先didn 索托反应的存在， Ataxalpa at first didn抰 react to Soto抯 presence,
好像没有人进入房间。 as if nobody had entered the room.
一旦，马来 完全相同的印加， Once the, the horse comes eye to eye with the Inca,
印加仍然是平静的， the Inca is still calm,
显示马没有 对他的影响，呼吁索托虚张声势。 showing that the horse has no impact on him, calling Soto抯 bluff.
船长先进如此接近 The captain advanced so close
这匹马鼻孔不安 边缘的印加额头。 that the horse抯 nostrils disturbed the fringe of the Inca抯 forehead.
但是，印加一动也不动。 But the Inca never moved.
然后，经过短暂的沉默 来自 Ataxalpa爆炸。 And then, after a brief silence comes Ataxalpa抯 explosion.
他告诉他们， 时间已到，你付钱。 He was telling them, the time has come for you to pay.
我明白这一点，现在已 来为你付你的生活。 I understand this as the time has come for you to pay with your lives.
索托我明白是够紧张 回来与恐惧的，营地， Soto I understand was nervous enough to come back with fear to the, the camp,
而我们知道，西班牙人花 前一天晚上，在极端的恐惧。 and as we know, the Spaniards spent the night before in extreme fear.
这已经使他们的征服者 在这个镇的营地卡哈马卡。 The conquistadors had made their camp in the town of Cajamarca.
其中许多人现在确信 他们正面临着被遗忘。 Many of them are now convinced they are facing oblivion.
168名士兵，000英里 从任何其他西班牙人， 168 soldiers, 1,000 miles from any other Spaniard,
面对 8万印加人的军队。 facing an army of 80,000 Incas.
我们很少睡觉的夜晚。 我们一直走在广场， Few of us slept that night. We kept walking the square,
从那里我们可以看到 营火灾的印度军队。 from where we could see the camp fires of the Indian army.
这是一个可怕的景象，就像一个 精辟星光熠熠的夜晚。 It was a fearful sight, like a brilliantly star-studded night.
皮萨罗和他最信任的军官辩论 他们的选择如何处理 Ataxalpa。 Pizarro and his most trusted officers debate their options for how to deal with Ataxalpa.
有些建议要小心从事， Some advise caution,
但皮萨罗坚持自己的最好机会是 发动突然袭击的第二天。 but Pizarro insists their best chance is to launch a surprise attack the next day.
它一个战术，工作 在过去的成功。 It抯 a tactic that抯 worked successfully in the past.
12年之前，皮萨罗来到秘鲁， 另一个著名的征服者，埃尔南科尔特斯， Twelve years before Pizarro went to Peru, another famous conquistador, Hernan Cortez,
去了墨西哥和遇到的 另一个强大的文明： had gone to Mexico and encountered another formidable civilization:
阿兹台克人。 the Aztecs.
他所征服的国家 阿兹台克领袖绑架 He conquered the country by kidnapping the Aztec leader
并利用所产生的混乱。 and exploiting the ensuing chaos.
科特斯故事其后 出版，成为畅销书， Cortez抯 story was later published and became a bestseller,
一本手册任何想要成为征服者。 a handbook for any would-be conquistador.
它仍然可以发现在大图书馆 萨拉曼卡大学西班牙北部。 It can still be found in the great library of Salamanca University in Northern Spain.
在这里，这美妙的音乐库 This wonderful library here
可以被认为是除其他外 作为一个仓库的肮脏把戏， can be thought of among other things as a repository of dirty tricks,
因为这些书 什么将军的账目 because in these books are the accounts of what generals
已做其他将领 had been doing to other generals
数千年来在 过去，横跨欧亚大陆的大部分， for thousands of years in the past and across much of Eurasia,
在这里，我们从这个图书馆有一 著名账户的征服墨西哥 and here from this library we have a famous account of the conquest of Mexico
与所有的细节是什么科特斯 当时的阿兹台克人，什么工作。 with all the details of what Cortez did to the Aztecs and what worked.
这是一个模型 皮萨罗给他的想法 That was a model for Pizarro to give him ideas
究竟尝试对印加人， what exactly to try out on the Incas,
而印加人没有文字，只有 当地知识传播的口头记忆， whereas the Incas without writing, had only local knowledge transmitted by oral memory,
和他们淳朴和天真 and they were unsophisticated and naive
相对于西班牙人 因为写作。 compared to the Spaniards because of writing.
但是，如果书是那么有用，为什么 一直无法印加人读或写？ But if books were so useful, why couldn抰 the Incas read or write?
要开发一个新系统 独立写作 To develop a new system of writing independently
是一个极其复杂的过程， is an extremely complex process,
并发生了很 在人类历史上罕见。 and has happened very rarely in human history.
这是第一次实现了苏美尔 人的肥沃新月 It was first achieved by the Sumerian people of the Fertile Crescent
至少在5000年以前。 at least 5,000 years ago.
他们开创了阐述 系统的符号称为楔形文字， They pioneered an elaborate system of symbols called cuneiform,
作为一种可能的 录音农业交易。 possibly as a way of recording farming transactions.
从那以后，几乎所有其他书面 语言欧洲和亚洲的复制， Ever since, almost every other written language of Europe and Asia has copied,
调整或只是受到启发 由基本的楔形文字。 adapted or simply been inspired by the basics of cuneiform.
写作的蔓延帮助 巨大的发明纸张， The spread of writing was helped enormously by the invention of paper,
墨水和可移动式， ink and moveable type,
创新，所有 来自欧洲以外 innovations that all came from outside Europe
但经检 欧洲人在中世纪 but were seized upon by Europeans in the Middle Ages
生产的最终 发射机的知识： to produce the ultimate transmitter of knowledge:
印刷机。 the printing press.
文字现在可以迅速传播 准确地在欧洲和亚洲。 The written word could now spread quickly and accurately across Europe and Asia.
现代世界是不可能的 不发展，写作。 The modern world would be impossible without the development of writing.
但另一部分世界 But there抯 another part of the world
在一个新的系统的书面 独立发明。 where a new system of writing was invented independently.
在墨西哥南部，在 至少2500年以前， In Southern Mexico, at least 2,500 years ago,
当地人开发了 工作方式与符号 native people developed a way of working with symbols
这涉及到玛雅脚本。 that involved into the Mayan script.
但是，如果玛雅人有文字， But if the Maya had writing,
为什么 didn蔓延到南部安第斯山脉 并帮助印加人成为有文化？ why didn抰 it spread south to the Andes and help the Incas become literate?
对于戴蒙德，答案在于 在大陆的形状。 For Diamond, the answer lies in the shape of the continents.
这里是欧洲和亚洲 形成了大陆的欧亚大陆， Here were Europe and Asia forming the continent of Eurasia,
一个巨大的大陆 a giant continent
但伸出从东 西，从北到南缩小。 but it抯 stretched out from east to west, and narrows from north to south.
美洲大陆是由长 北到南，从东到西窄， The American continent is long from north to south, narrow from east to west,
在巴拿马非常狭窄的地方 收窄至不足100英里。 very narrow at Panama where it narrows down to less than 100 miles.
两大洲都是同一长度， 大约 8000英里的最高层面， The two continents are of the same lengths, about 8,000 miles in maximum dimensions,
但欧亚大陆 8000 英里从东到西， but Eurasia is 8,000 miles from east to west,
和美洲是8000 英里从北到南， and the Americas are 8,000 miles from north to south,
它好像这些大陆人 90度旋转，对方。 it抯 as if these continents were rotated 90 degrees of each other.
戴蒙德已经显示出 该作物和动物 Diamond has already shown that crops and animals
可以容易传播东 和西部横跨欧亚大陆。 could spread easily east and west across Eurasia.
由于同一纬度的地方 自动共享同一天的长度 Because places the same latitude automatically share the same day length
一个类似的气候和植被。 and a similar climate and vegetation.
但是，美洲大陆 对面是欧亚大陆。 But the American continents were the opposite of Eurasia.
旅程从一端到美洲 另一种是从北到南的旅程， A journey from one end of the Americas to the other is a journey from north to south,
通过不同天的旅程 长度，不同气候区， a journey through different day lengths, different climate zones,
并显著不同的植被。 and dramatically different vegetation.
这些基本的分歧阻碍了蔓延 作物和动物以及人， These basic differences hindered the spread of crops and animals as well as people,
思想和技术。 ideas and technologies.
人民的安第斯山脉 被长期孤立的， The people of the Andes were chronically isolated,
无法获得书面或 几乎任何其他创新 without access to writing or almost any other innovation
来自美洲的其他地方。 from elsewhere in the Americas.
相比之下，皮萨罗和他 男子在地理上得天独厚。 By contrast, Pizarro and his men were geographically blessed.
由于西班牙人，他们享有 技术的好处 As Spaniards, they enjoyed the benefit of technologies
和想法，已扩散 轻松跨越欧亚大陆。 and ideas that had spread easily across Eurasia.
这些事件显然是对 1532 受深层次原因， The events of 1532 were clearly influenced by deep causes,
对其中任何个人 西班牙人或印加过任何管制。 over which no individual Spaniard or Inca had any control.
大陆的形状，在 分布的植物和动物， The shape of the continents, the distribution of plants and animals,
欧亚技术的传播， 这些都是事实的地理， the spread of Eurasian technology, these were facts of geography,
和几乎每一个转折的戏剧， and at almost every turn of the drama,
地理是倾斜 赞成的欧洲人。 geography was tilted in favor of the Europeans.
它凌晨，1532年11月16日。 It抯 the morning of November 16th, 1532.
Ataxalpa已同意以满足 西班牙人在这个镇的卡哈马卡， Ataxalpa has agreed to meet the Spaniards in the town of Cajamarca,
并发送一行在他的前面。 and sends his entourage ahead of him.
但他作出了重大决定：即 他的士兵不要携带武器。 But he makes a fateful decision: that his soldiers should not carry weapons.
印第安人音乐家和舞蹈家。 The Indians were musicians and dancers.
他们是士兵，但没有携带武器。 They were soldiers, but unarmed.
为什么会 Ataxalpa解除武装自己的士兵？ Why would Ataxalpa unarm his own soldiers?
为什么，因为他是在 节日，他庆祝。 Why, because he was in the festivity, he was celebrating.
他冰冻三尺要战争。 He wasn抰 going to war.
他要参加一个庆祝活动 使整个人能看到 He was going for a celebration so that the whole people could see
据称神如何将逃跑的恐惧。 how the alleged gods would run away in fear.
事实上，有些人 相信西班牙人 The fact that some people believed that the Spaniards
被神将发挥更好的 手中的Ataxalpa的目的。 were gods would play better in the hands of Ataxalpa抯 purpose.
如果我不知道他们是 神和我打败神， If I know they are not gods and I defeat the gods,
那么当然大家会和我在一起。 then of course everybody will be with me.
但如果我失败的神 没有显示其力量呢？ But what if I defeat the gods with no show of force at all?
然后，我超越了神。 Then I am beyond the gods.
虽然 Ataxalpa和他的部下进入卡哈马卡， 西班牙人在等待，从视图中隐藏。 While Ataxalpa and his men enter Cajamarca, the Spaniards are waiting, hidden from view.
有五，六千 男人和他们背后， There were five or 6,000 men and behind them,
这个数字的Ataxalpa， 坐在一个很科幻东北垃圾， the figure of Ataxalpa, seated in a very fi ne litter,
内衬羽毛及 装饰用黄金和白银。 lined with feathers and embellished with gold and silver.
我们很多人自己生气 出于纯粹的恐怖。 Many of us pissed ourselves out of sheer terror.
这个广场是备案 Ataxalpa人， The square is filed with Ataxalpa抯 people,
但，不存在 一西班牙人即期。 but there抯, there抯 not one Spaniard at sight.
Ataxalpa要求，这里是这些狗？？ Ataxalpa asks, 慦here are these dogs??
他右手的一个答案， One of his right hands answers,
嘿都跑掉了，因为他们 害怕的宏伟印加？ 慣hey have run away because they are afraid of magnificent Inca?
当然整个人群听取 这一点，相信这是事实。 Of course the whole crowd listened to this and believed that this was the case.
我来之前，你的 在基督教的名称？ I come before you in the name of Christianity?/i>
皮萨罗发出了他的 牧师面对 Ataxalpa。 Pizarro sends out his priest to confront Ataxalpa.
显示您的?O真理的路径 </我> 卼o show you the path of truth
有责任的征服者 尝试转换原住民 The conquistadors are obliged to try and convert native people
之前，任何诉诸暴力。 before any resort to violence.
你在说什么的对头发脸吗？</我> What are you talking about hair face?
我是儿子的的太阳！</我> I am the Son of the Sun!
的我有权支配我的人</我> I have the right to govern my people
你的什么权利要 跟我说话这样呢？</我> What right do you have to speak to me in this way?
我的权力来自上帝</我> My authority comes from The Lord
的他的话语是写在这本书 </我> His Word is written in this book
这是你的权力？</我> This is your power?
Ataxalpa从未见过一本书。 他没有按知道怎么用它做。 Ataxalpa has never seen a book before. He doesn抰 know what to do with it.
它毫无价值的 </我> It抯 worthless
的我不听你说的话 </我> I don抰 hear the word you speak of
你怎么敢的，印度的狗！</我> How dare you, Indian dog!
的出来吧，西班牙人！</我> Come out, Spaniards!
销毁这些狗的 谁穿上尊重事物的神！</我> Destroy these dogs who don抰 respect things of God!
在那一刻，随着 人群完全没有准备， At that moment, with the crowd absolutely unprepared,
马来。 the horses come.
有大规模的恐慌。 There was massive panic.
试想在卡哈马卡现场。 Just imagine the scene in Cajamarca.
印加人涂药看到马前， 这些阿仁普通马匹， The Incas hadn抰 seen horses before, and these aren抰 ordinary horses,
这是西班牙马， 激烈，大，战斗马。 these are Spanish horses, fierce, big, fighting horses.
他们可以得到在人们之间， They could get in amongst men,
他们将男子和他们践踏 所取得的最优秀的平台。 they would trample men and they made the most excellent platform.
从马，你可以刺下来 向左，刺到的权利， From the horse, you could stab down to the left, stab down to the right,
你可以剪切，可以 镰刀，黑客对你的所有。 you could cut, you could scythe, hacking all about you.
如果只印加人已知道那是你 必须做对骑兵是立场坚定， If only the Incas had known that what you had to do against cavalry was stand firm,
然后他们已经好了，他们 优越的数字，但他们 didn知道这一点。 then they抎 have been alright, they had superior numbers, but they didn抰 know that.
他们逃跑，他们打破了队伍， They fled, they broke ranks,
然后骑手能得到在 他们中间，他们削减下来。 and then the horsemen could get in amongst them and they cut them down.
有一个印加神称 Viracoxa， There was an Inca god called Viracoxa,
他是一名白人男子，并 他是神的雷声， and he was a white man, and he was the god of thunder,
他们认为这些 男人用自己的aquabuses and they thought these men with their aquabuses
是非常化身Viracoxa。 were the very incarnation of Viracoxa.
印加Ataxalpa在他的 垃圾，举行他的载体。 The Inca Ataxalpa was in his litter, held by his carriers.
只要他们能够做到这一点， 西班牙人来到后，乱抛垃圾。 As soon as they were able to do it, the Spaniards went after the litter.
他们开始杀人的载体。 And they started killing the carriers.
一个承运人将下降， 另一个人会代替他。 One carrier would fall, and another one would replace him.
只有在非常，非常， 很底的悲剧， Only at the very, very, very end of the tragedy,
垃圾开始行动，因为 有没有更多的运营商了。 the litter started to move because there were no more carriers left.
由于垃圾瀑布，皮萨罗 自己捕捉Ataxalpa。 As the litter falls, Pizarro himself captures Ataxalpa.
他的计划一直在努力完善。 His plan has worked to perfection.
Ataxalpa被带到一个临时监狱 在皇家宿舍在卡哈马卡。 Ataxalpa is taken to a makeshift prison in the royal quarters at Cajamarca.
他以为我们是要 杀死他，但我们告诉他，没有。 He thought we were going to kill him, but we told him, no.
基督徒只杀死 热的战斗。 Christians only kill in the heat of the battle.
外，数以千计的印加人都死了。 Outside, thousands of Incas are dead.
其余的军队 撤退到山上。 The rest of the army has retreated to the hills.
尽管大规模的失衡 在数量上，西班牙马， In spite of a massive imbalance in number, Spanish horses,
剑和战略已经证明是决定性的。 swords and strategy have proved decisive.
但西班牙人拥有另一 他们 didn武器甚至不知道他们， But the Spaniards possessed another weapon they didn抰 even know they had,
武器的大规模杀伤性 无形中已走在他们前面。 a weapon of mass destruction that had marched invisibly ahead of them.
今天，战争的传染性疾病 是在发动生物研究中心 Today, the war against infectious disease is waged at biological research centers
像波顿下来在英格兰南部。 like Porton Down in Southern England.
在这里，他们对生产疫苗 世界致命病毒。 They produce vaccines here against the world抯 deadliest viruses.
在16世纪有没有疫苗， In the 16th century there were no vaccines,
并且没有保障的 泛滥的传染性疾病。 and there was no protection from the rampant spread of infectious disease.
12年之前，皮萨罗来到 卡哈马卡，西班牙船驶往墨西哥。 Twelve years before Pizarro arrived at Cajamarca, a Spanish ship sailed to Mexico.
在船上，其中一个是奴隶 从第一个痛苦的迹象发烧。 On board, one of the slaves was suffering from the first signs of a fever.
他是第一人带来 致命疾病的美洲大陆。 He was the first person to bring a deadly disease to the American mainland.
这种疾病是天花。 The disease was smallpox.
几周之内，天花病毒 会传播从单一来源 Within weeks, the smallpox virus would spread from a single source
感染成千上万的当地美国人。 to infect thousands of native Americans.
天花获得进入人体时， 你呼吸着的粒子， Smallpox gets into the body when you breathe in the particles,
和他们重视自己的回 你的喉咙和肺部内你的。 and they attach themselves to the back of your throat and the inside of your lungs.
约 2至3天到 疾病，那么经典的皮疹出现时， About two to three days into the illness, then the classic rash appears,
并在其最坏的形式，这 接管整个身体 and in its worst forms, this takes over the whole of the body
与最初丘疹，然后巨大 水泡，直到整个皮肤， with initially pimples and then enormous blisters until the whole of the skin,
开始用手 和面，然后 starting with the hands and the face and then
蔓延到包括 其余的身体， spreading down to cover the rest of the body,
被接管的天花水泡。 is taken over by the smallpox blisters.
从那个时候起， 病人的传染性很强。 From that time on, the patient is highly infectious.
因为每个这些水泡是 包装完整的天花颗粒， Because each of those blisters is packed full of smallpox particles,
然后如果你破灭 水泡，流将出来 then if you burst a blister, fluid will come out
和大量的病毒会 被溅上任何触及。 and large numbers of viruses will be spilt onto whatever it touches.
10到12天以后，他的 朋友会生病， Ten to twelve days later, his friends would be taken ill,
然后再对 10和，二天 在这之后，他们的朋友。 and then ten to twelve days after that, their friends.
这种率是指 疾病的传播指数。 That kind of rate means the disease spreads exponentially.
它的速度增加变得越来越大 和更大的多的人受到感染， Its rate of increase gets bigger and bigger and bigger the more people are infected,
直到它最终将导致 在人口的巨大破坏。 until eventually it will cause tremendous devastation in the population.
第一天花的流行 新世界横扫中美洲 The first smallpox epidemic of the New World swept through Central America
并达成了印加帝国。 and reached the Inca Empire.
无论它走哪儿，该病毒 当地人口锐减， Wherever it went, the virus decimated native populations,
使他们更容易的猎物 对西班牙的征服。 making them easier prey for Spanish conquest.
但为什么这些细菌使片面？ But why were the germs so one-sided?
为什么西班牙人通过 印加人到他们的疾病， Why did the Spaniards pass their diseases onto the Incas,
而不是反过来？ and not the other way around?
这是皮萨罗秘密武器; This is Pizarro抯 secret weapon;
猪，牛，羊， 山羊等牲畜。 pigs and cows, sheep and goats, domestic animals.
请记住，皮萨罗是一个猪倌。 Remember that Pizarro was a swineherd.
他从小生长在这样的小屋，在 与国内的动物亲密接触， He grew up in huts like this, in intimate contact with domestic animals,
在他们的呼吸细菌， 喝牛奶中的细菌， breathing in their germs, drinking the germs in their milk,
它是从 细菌家畜 and it was from the germs of domestic animals
该致命疾病，人类的进化， that the killer diseases of humans evolved,
例如我们陆演变的疾病 通过猪传染鸡和鸭。 for example our 慺lu evolved from a disease of pigs transmitted via chickens and ducks.
我们收购了麻疹牛，我们 从国内收购天花动物， We acquired measles from cattle; we acquired smallpox from domestic animals,
因此，这些人最差的杀手人类 10000是一个遗留多年的接触 so that these worst killers of human people were a legacy of 10,000 years of contact
与我们敬爱的家畜。 with our beloved domestic animals.
在中世纪， During the Middle Ages,
传染病席卷 欧洲并声称以百万计的生命。 infectious diseases swept through Europe and claimed millions of lives.
但矛盾的是，反复流行 使得欧洲人更有弹性。 But paradoxically, repeated epidemics made Europeans more resilient.
在每一个爆发， In each outbreak,
总有一些人 there were always some people
谁是更好的基因 能够抵抗病毒。 who were genetically better able to fight off the virus.
这些人更有可能 为了生存和孩子。 These people were more likely to survive and have children.
在这个过程中，通过他们 他们的遗传性。 In the process, they抎 pass on their genetic resistance.
几个世纪以来，整个人口收购 Over centuries, whole populations acquired
一定程度的防护 传播的疾病，如天花 some degree of protection against the spread of diseases like smallpox
一个保护印加人所没有的。 a protection the Incas never had.
一旦天花被带到新的世界， Once smallpox was taken to the New World,
没有人在新的世界从来 看到这样的一种疾病之前， nobody in the New World had ever seen a disease like this before,
所以人数是谁 敏感的要大得多。 so the number of people who were susceptible was much greater.
有没有自然免疫力， 因此这项人数 There was no natural immunity, and so therefore the number of people
谁既能合同 然后将其传播疾病， who could both contract the disease and then spread it,
当中有多少人接受 一次，它的蔓延，要高得多。 and the number of people to receive it once it had spread, was much higher.
更多的人会死， More people would die,
多的人都可能会受到 赶上它摆在首位。 and more people would be susceptible to catch it in the first place.
它会迅速蔓延 在整个人口中， It would spread rapidly throughout the population,
，死亡人数将是巨大的。 and the death toll would be enormous.
为什么涂药印地安人 天花遇到过吗？ Why hadn抰 Native Americans encountered smallpox before?
又为什么 didn他们有致命的疾病 自己的负担转嫁到西班牙人？ And why didn抰 they have any deadly diseases of their own to pass on to the Spaniards?
这仅仅是因为他们 didn有 同样的历史与家畜的接触。 It抯 simply because they didn抰 have the same history of contact with farm animals.
印加人了骆驼，但骆驼 阿仁像欧洲牛和羊。 The Incas had llamas, but llamas aren抰 like European cows and sheep.
他们e不挤奶，他们e 没有跟上大牛群， They抮e not milked, they抮e not kept in large herds,
他们住在谷仓唐 和人类的小屋旁边。 and they don抰 live in barns and huts alongside humans.
无显著性交换 细菌和人民之间的骆驼。 There was no significant exchange of germs between llamas and people.
戴蒙德的关键参数 The key to Diamond抯 argument
是分布农场 动物世界各地。 is the distribution of farm animals around the world.
除了美洲驼， Aside from the llama,
所有的大型农场动物 原产于欧亚大陆和北非。 all the large farm animals were native to Eurasia and North Africa.
没有人曾经在北驯化 美国，撒哈拉以南非洲，澳洲。 None was ever domesticated in North America, Sub-Saharan Africa, or Australia.
因此， As a result,
最严重的流行疾病也 原产于欧亚大陆和北非， the worst epidemic diseases were also native to Eurasia and North Africa,
并随后扩散到 世界上有致命的影响。 and were then spread around the world with deadly effect.
有是一个长期争论 土著人的数目 There抯 been a long debate about the number of indigenous people
谁死在西班牙 征服新世界。 who died in the Spanish conquest of the New World.
有学者认为可能是 人口20万土著美国人， Some scholars think there may have been a population of 20 million Native Americans,
和绝大多数，也许 95％， 杀害了旧世界的疾病。 and the vast majority, perhaps 95%, were killed by Old World diseases.
一个大陆几乎掏空了人民。 A continent virtually emptied of its people.
经过最初的震惊，他捕捉， Ataxalpa成为一个合作的俘虏。 After the initial shock of his capture, Ataxalpa became a cooperative prisoner.
他学会了讲西班牙语， 下棋与绑匪。 He learned to speak Spanish, and play chess with his captors.
西班牙人意识到他更 有用的是他们活着比死了。 The Spaniards realized he was more useful to them alive than dead.
他被允许重新建立 他在法庭监狱， He was allowed to re-establish his court in prison,
只要他下令将他 市民接受西班牙的统治。 as long as he ordered his people to accept Spanish rule.
他还命令他们融化 下了大量的财富。 He also ordered them to melt down a vast amount of treasure.
皮萨罗，他曾承诺 Ataxalpa 自由以换取黄金。 Pizarro had promised Ataxalpa his freedom in return for the gold.
它被证明是一个空洞的承诺。 It proved to be an empty promise.
经移交20 吨黄金和白银， Having handed over 20 tons of gold and silver,
Ataxalpa不再 有用的绑匪。 Ataxalpa was no longer useful to his captors.
他garrotted死刑，在同一 广场有那么他的许多追随者 He was garrotted to death, in the same square where so many of his followers
在八个月前被屠宰。 had been slaughtered eight months earlier.
随着 Ataxalpa死亡，征服者 接着殖民其余秘鲁。 With Ataxalpa dead, the conquistadors went on to colonize the rest of Peru.
依靠的力量 他们的枪炮，病菌和钢铁。 Relying on the power of their guns, germs and steel.
黄金是从西班牙殖民地 带回塞维利亚在西班牙南部。 Gold from the Spanish colonies was brought back to Seville in Southern Spain.
有小活动在Guadocreata 今天河，但在16世纪， There抯 little activity in the Guadocreata River today, but in the 16th century,
这是其中最重要的是， 在世界上最繁忙的港口。 this was among the most important, busiest ports in the world.
一个稳定的船只在佛罗里达州的OW 珍惜来自美洲帮助西班牙 A steady fl ow of ships carrying treasure from the Americas helped Spain
成为最富有的国家之一，在地球上。 become one of the richest nations on earth.
永远的征服者改变 The conquistadors had changed forever
旧世界之间的关系和新建。 the relationship between Old World and New.
我来到西班牙，回答问题， I came to Spain to answer a question,
为什么皮萨罗和他的手下征服 印加人，而不是反过来？ why did Pizarro and his men conquer the Incas instead of the other way around?
有整个神话，这种征服 和一般的欧洲扩张 There抯 a whole mythology that that conquest and the European expansion in general
欧洲人自己造成的 resulted from Europeans themselves
尤其是勇敢或 加粗或发明或智能， being especially brave or bold or inventive or smart,
但答案变成无关 不与任何个人素质的欧洲人。 but the answers turn out to have nothing to do with any personal qualities of Europeans.
是啊，皮萨罗和他手下的人勇敢， 但也有很多勇敢的印加人。 Yeah, Pizarro and his men were brave, but there were plenty of brave Incas.
相反，欧洲人 偶然的征服者。 Instead, Europeans were accidental conquerors.
凭借其地理 地理位置和历史， By virtue of their geographic location and history,
他们是第一人 获得枪支，细菌和钢铁。 they were the first people to acquire guns, germs and steel.
到年底的19世纪， 欧洲列强都敢于下 By the end of the 19th century, European powers had ventured down
美洲和殖民 非洲，澳大利亚和许多亚洲国家。 the Americas and colonized Africa, Australia and much of Asia.
该进程始于卡哈马卡 已达到其合乎逻辑的结论。 The process that began at Cajamarca had reached its logical conclusion.
欧洲枪炮，细菌和 钢的重新塑造世界。 European guns, germs and steel were reshaping the world.
Subtitle made by Polux@titrari.ro Subtitle made by Polux@titrari.ro
Transcript from : www.pbs.org/gunsgermssteel