On the 14th August 1894, 1894年8月14日
an excited crowd gathered outside Oxford's Natural History Museum. 牛津大学自然历史博物馆外 人声鼎沸
This huge Gothic building was hosting the annual meeting 在这座雄伟的哥特式建筑里
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. 英国科学促进协会正在举行年度例会
Over 2,000 tickets had been sold in advance and the museum was already packed, 两千多张入场券被预订一空 博物馆内座无虚席
waiting for the next talk to be given by Professor Oliver Lodge. 人们都等待着聆听奥利弗·洛奇教授的演讲
His name might not be familiar to us now, 如今 他的名字鲜为人知
but his discoveries should have made him as famous 但他作出的发现 本该让他
as some of the other great electrical pioneers of history. 和电学界的其他先驱一样 名垂青史
People like Benjamin Franklin, 就像本杰明·富兰克林
Alessandro Volta, 亚历山德罗·伏特
or even the great Michael Faraday. 还有迈克尔·法拉第
Quite unwittingly, he would set in motion a series of events 他在不经意间发起的一场科技革命
that would revolutionise the Victorian world 让人类彻底告别了
of brass and telegraph wire. 充斥着黄铜设备和电报线路的维多利亚时代
This lecture would mark the birth of the modern electrical world, 这场演讲 标志着电子时代的诞生
a world dominated by silicone and mass wireless communication. 从此 人类走进了属于集成芯片和无线通信的新纪元
In this programme, we discover how electricity connected the world together 在本集中 我们将探寻电是如何通过广播和网络
through broadcasting and computer networks, 将世界连接起来
and how we finally learnt to unravel and exploit electricity 以及人类最终是如何从原子层面上
at an atomic level. 去认识和利用电的
After centuries of man's experiments with electricity, 在经历了几个世纪的摸索后
a new age of real understanding was now dawning. 我们终于开始理解电的本质了
翻译：胡大田 ToxicDolphin statm 校对：女侠阿呆
第三集 日新月异
These tubes are not plugged in to any power source, but they still light up. 这些管子并没有通电 却仍然在发光
It's electricity's invisible effect, 这是一种肉眼看不见的电学现象
an effect not just confined to the wires it flows through. 它不需要任何导线 就能够传播
In the middle of the 19th century, 19世纪中叶
a great theory was proposed to explain how this could be. 为了解释这种现象 人们提出了一项伟大的理论
The theory says that surrounding any electric charge - 它指出 在电荷的周围
and there's a lot of electricity flowing above my head - 比如 从我上空输电线里流过的电荷周围
is a force field. 存在着一种“电场”
These florescent tubes are lit purely because they are under 这些荧光管之所以发光 是因为
the influence of the force field from the power cables above. 它们受到了输电线电场的影响
The theory that a flow of electricity could, in some way, 电流能够产生电场的理论
create an invisible force field, was originally proposed by Michael Faraday, 最初是由迈克尔·法拉第提出的
but it would take a brilliant young Scotsman called James Clerk Maxwell, 而一位才华横溢的苏格兰青年 麦克斯韦
who would prove Faraday correct - 为这个理论提供了证明
and not through experimentation, but through mathematics. 他的证明方法并不是实验 而是数学
This was all a far cry from the typical 19th century way 这在当时是很新颖的 因为19世纪的人们普遍认为
of understanding how the world works, 要了解大自然的运作规律
which was essentially to see it as a physical machine. 就要像研究一台机器一样 去观察它
Before Maxwell, scientists had often built strange machines 在麦克斯韦之前 科学家们为了创造和测量电
or devised wondrous experiments to create and measure electricity. 设计出了各种奇特的设备和实验
But Maxwell was different. 但麦克斯韦的方法别具一格
He was interested in the numbers, and his new theory not only revealed 他侧重进行量化研究 他的新理论
electricity's invisible force field, but how it could be manipulated. 不仅证明了电场的存在 还指出了控制它的方式
It would prove to be one of the most important scientific discoveries of all time. 这是有史以来 最重要的科学发现之一
Maxwell was a mathematician and a great one 麦克斯韦是一位伟大的数学家
and he saw electricity and magnetism in an entirely new way. 他对电和磁的看法与众不同
He expressed it all in terms of very compact mathematical equations. 他用简洁的数学方程归纳了电磁原理
And the most important thing is that in Maxwell's equations 最重要的是 麦克斯韦方程
is an understanding of electricity and magnetism as something linked 不光描述了电和磁的关系
and as something that can occur in waves. 还指出了电磁波存在的可能性
Maxwell's calculations showed how these fields could be disturbed 麦克斯韦的方程 解释了电磁场的波动
rather like touching the surface of water with your finger. 手指碰到水的时候 水面会泛起涟漪
Changing the direction of the electric current 同样 改变电流的方向
would create a ripple or wave through these electric and magnetic fields. 也会在电场和磁场中产生波动
And constantly changing the direction 如果电流的方向
of the flow of the current, forwards and backwards, 像交流电一样 不断改变的话
like an alternating current, would produce a whole series of waves, 就会产生一系列的波
waves that would carry energy. 而这些波会带有能量
Maxwell's maths was telling him that changing electric currents 麦克斯韦方程表明 改变电流的方向
would be constantly sending out great waves of energy into their surroundings. 会把能量以波的形式传送到周边的环境中去
Waves that would carry on forever unless something absorbed them. 这些波可以无限传播下去 除非被物质吸收掉
Maxwell's maths was so advanced and complicated 麦克斯韦的数学公式非常复杂
that only a handful of people understood it at the time, 在当时 只有极少数人能够理解
and although his work was still only a theory, 然而 尽管他的成果还停留在理论层面
it inspired a young German physicist called Heinrich Hertz. 却启发了一位年轻的德国物理学家 海因里希·赫兹
Hertz decided to dedicate himself to designing an experiment 赫兹下定决心 要设计一个实验
to prove that Maxwell's waves really existed. 证明麦克斯韦波的存在
And here it is. 就是它
This is Hertz's original apparatus 这就是赫兹的实验装置
and its beauty is in its sheer simplicity. 它的设计充满了极简的美
He generates an alternating current that runs 当交流电通过金属棒
along these metal rods, with a spark that jumps across the gap between these two spheres. 流过两个铁球中间的空隙时 会产生一道火花
Now, if Maxwell was right, 如果麦克斯韦的理论成立
then this alternating current should generate an invisible 那么 电流就会产生隐形的
electromagnetic wave that spreads out into the surroundings. 向外扩散的电磁波
If you place a wire in the path of that wave, 当我们在波的传播路径上放置一段导线时
then at the wire, there should be a changing electromagnetic field, 四周不断变化的电磁场
which should induce an electric current in the wire. 会使导线中出现电流
So what Hertz did was build this ring of wire, his receiver, 于是 赫兹用导线做了一个环形接收器
that he could carry around in different positions in the room 他拿着接收器在房间各处走动
to see if he could detect the presence of the wave. 探测是否有电磁波存在
And the way he did that was leave a very tiny gap in the wire, 他在导线环上留出了一段微小的空隙
across which a spark would jump if a current runs through the ring. 当电流经过这个空隙时 就会出现电火花
Now, because the current is so weak, that spark is very, very faint 但是 由于电流太弱 电火花几乎微不可见
and Hertz spent pretty much most of 1887 为此 赫兹几乎花了1887年整整一年的时间
in a darkened room staring intensely through a lens 在漆黑的房间中 目不转睛地盯着放大镜
to see if he could detect the presence of this faint spark. 寻找着微小的电火花
But Hertz wasn't alone in trying to create Maxwell's waves. 无独有偶
Back in England, a young physics Professor called Oliver Lodge 在英格兰 一位年轻的物理教授 奥利弗·洛奇
had been fascinated by the topic for years 也对这个问题着迷已久
but hadn't had the time to design any experiments to try to discover them. 只是 他还没有时间来设计相关的实验
Then one day, in early 1888, while setting up an experiment 1888年初的一天 在装配避雷实验的时候
on lightning protection, he noticed something unusual. 一个不寻常的现象吸引了洛奇的注意
Lodge noticed that when he set up his equipment 当他组装试验器械
and sent an alternating current around the wires, 并通过导线传送交流电时
he could see glowing patches between the wires, 他发现 两条导线之间出现了发光的纹路
and with a bit of tweaking, he saw these glowing patches formed a pattern. 稍作调整后 他看出 这些纹路是有规律的
The blue glow and electrical sparks occurred in distinct patches 发光的蓝色电火花 形状十分明显
evenly spaced along the wires. 它们沿着导线等距分布
He realised they were the peaks and troughs of a wave, 他意识到 这就是波峰和波谷
an invisible electromagnetic wave. 这是一道隐形的电磁波
Lodge had proved that Maxwell was right. 洛奇证明了麦克斯韦的理论
Finally, by accident, Lodge had created 他在无意间 看到了
Maxwell's electromagnetic waves around the wires. 两根导线之间的电磁波
The big question had been answered. 多年的疑问终于有了解答
Filled with excitement at his discovery, Lodge prepared 洛奇无比激动
to announce it to the world, at that summer's annual scientific meeting 他准备在当年的英国夏季科学会谈上
run by the British Association. 向全世界宣布自己的发现
Before it, though, he decided to go on holiday. 但在此之前 他决定先去度个假
His timing couldn't have been worse, because back in Germany, 他挑的时间十分不巧
and at exactly the same time, 因为与此同时
Heinrich Hertz was also testing Maxwell's theories. 德国的赫兹也正在验证麦克斯韦的理论
Eventually, Hertz found what he was looking for... 而最终 赫兹找到了他一直期盼的东西
a minute spark. 一个微小的电火花
And as he carried his receiver to different positions in the room, 他把接收器拿到房间的不同位置
he was able to map out the shape of the waves being produced by his apparatus. 描绘出了房间中电磁波的形状
And he checked each of Maxwell's calculations carefully 然后 他仔细检查了麦克斯韦的计算
and tested them experimentally. 并通过实验加以证实
It was a "tour de force" of experimental science. 这无疑是实验科学史上的一大创举
Back in Britain, 海峡对岸
as the crowds gathered for the British Association meeting, 在英国科学促进协会的年会上 人们齐聚一堂
Oliver Lodge returned from holiday relaxed and full of anticipation. 度假归来的洛奇 满面春风 饱怀期待
This, Lodge thought, would be his moment of triumph, 他以为 他即将迎来一生中最辉煌的时刻
when he could announce his discovery of Maxwell's waves. 他的发现会使他一鸣惊人
His great friend, the mathematician Fitzgerald, 而他的挚友 数学家菲茨杰拉德
was due to give the opening address in the meeting. 在会议的开幕式上发表讲话时
But in it, he proclaimed that Heinrik Hertz had just published astounding results. 却提到 赫兹刚刚发布了一项惊人的成果
He had detected Maxwell's waves travelling through space. 他探测到了空间中的电磁波
"We have snatched the thunderbolt from Jove himself 他说 “我们从朱庇特手里夺得了闪电
"and enslaved the all prevailing ether", he announced. 从此 我们将成为大自然的主人”
Well, I can only imagine how Lodge must have felt 研究成果被人捷足先登
having his thunder stolen. 洛奇的感受可想而知
Professor Oliver Lodge had lost his moment of triumph, 就这样 洛奇失去了这个永载史册的机会
pipped at the post by Heinrich Hertz. 他在最后一刻败给了赫兹
Hertz's spectacular demonstration of electromagnetic waves, 赫兹关于电磁波的精彩展示
what we now call radio waves, 也就是我们所说的“无线电波”
even though he didn't know it at the time, is gonna lead to a whole revolution in communications over the next century. 在不经意间 引发了一场持续一个世纪的通讯革命
Maxwell's theory had shown how electric charges could create 麦克斯韦的理论说明 在电荷的周围
a force field around them. 会产生电场
And that waves could spread 而电磁波传播的方式
through these fields like ripples on a pond. 就像池塘水面上的涟漪一样 向四周扩散
And Hertz had built a device that could actually create 赫兹还制造了一台能够产生
and detect the waves as they passed through the air. 并检测电磁波的装置
But, almost immediately, 然而 不久之后
there would be another revelation in our understanding of electricity. 人们对电有了更深层次的理解
A revelation that would once again involve Professor Oliver Lodge. 而洛奇教授又一次成为了故事的脚注
And, once again, his thunder would be stolen. 与胜利失之交臂
The story starts in Oxford, in the summer of 1894. 故事发生在1894年夏天的牛津大学
Hertz had died suddenly earlier that year, 在几个月前 赫兹猝然离世
and so Lodge prepared a memorial lecture with a demonstration 为此 洛奇准备了一场带有演示实验的纪念讲座
that would bring the idea of waves to a wider audience. 希望使电磁波的思想被更多人理解
Lodge had worked on his lecture. 为了这次讲座 洛奇苦心钻研
He'd researched better ways of detecting the waves, 他改善了捕捉电磁波的方法
and he'd borrowed new apparatus from friends. 还从朋友那里借来了新的实验设备
He'd made some significant advances in the technology 他对电磁波的检测技术
designed to detect the waves. 进行了巨大的改进
This bit of apparatus generates an alternating current 这部分装置产生交流电
and a spark across this gap. 在两个球之间可以看到电火花
The alternating current sends out an electromagnetic wave, 就像麦克斯韦预测的那样 交流电产生电磁波
just as Maxwell predicted, that is picked up by the receiver. 它会被接收器捕捉到
It sets off a very weak electric current through these two antennae. 在这两根天线里 会出现极微弱的电流
Now, this is what Hertz had done. 这些都是赫兹的设计
Lodge's improvement on this was to set up this tube full of iron fillings. 洛奇改进了它 加上了一个装有铁屑的管子
The weak electric current passes through the filings, 微弱的电流穿过这些铁屑
forcing them to clump together. 让它们簇成一堆
And, when they do, they close a second electric circuit 当铁屑之间没有缝隙时 它们便闭合了第二个电路
and set off the bell. 引起铃响
So if I push the button on this end... 所以 如果我按下这边的按钮
...it sets off the bell at the receiver. 接收器上的电铃就会响起来
And it's doing that with no connections between the two. 而两边完全没有电线连接
It's like magic. 就像魔术一样神奇
If you could imagine a packed house, 想象一下 在一个熙熙攘攘的大厅里
lots of people in the audience, and what they suddenly see is, 听众席上观者云集 他们看见一个电铃
as if by magic, a bell ringing. It's quite incredible. 就像被施了魔法一样 自己响了起来 令人难以置信
It might not have been the most dramatic demonstration the audience had ever seen, 这个演示或许算不上博人眼球
but it certainly still created a sensation among the crowd. 但它仍然在人群中引起了一阵轰动
Lodge's apparatus, laid out like this, 如此一来 洛奇的装置
no longer looked like a scientific experiment. 看起来不再像是一台实验仪器
In fact, it looked remarkably like those telegraph machines 它和曾经革新了通讯领域的
that had revolutionised communication, but without those long cables 电报机差不多 但去掉了那些
stretching between the sending and receiving stations. 长长的电缆线
To the more worldly and savvy members of the audience, 对于那些具有慧眼的听众来说
this was clearly more than showing the maestro Maxwell was right. 这个实验远不只是证明了麦克斯韦的伟大理论
This was a revolutionary new form of communication. 它还代表了一种全新的通讯方式
Lodge published his lecture notes on how electromagnetic waves 洛奇发表了演讲稿 里面阐述了他对设备做出的改进
could be sent and received using his new improvements. 以及电磁波的发送和接收方法
All around the world, inventors, amateur enthusiasts 世界各地的发明家 科学家
and scientists read Lodge's reports with excitement 都激动地阅读着洛奇的演讲稿
and began experimenting with Hertzian waves. 并开始进行电磁波实验
Two utterly different characters were to be inspired by it. 洛奇的讲稿 给两个截然不同的人带来了灵感
Both would bring improvements to the wireless telegraph, 后来 他们都对无线电报的发展做出了贡献
and both would be remembered for their contribution to science far more than Oliver Lodge. 也都比洛奇本人更负盛名
The first was Guglielmo Marconi. 其中一位是Guglielmo Marconi
Marconi was a very intelligent, astute Marconi精明 聪慧
and a very charming individual. 而又风度翩翩
He definitely had the Italian, Irish charm. 意大利和爱尔兰的血统 给了他不凡的气质
He could apply this to almost anyone 无论是豆蔻少女 还是学术巨擘
from sort of young ladies to world-renowned scientists. 都被他的魅力所吸引
Marconi was no scientist, Marconi并不是一个科学家
but he read all he could of other people's work 但是他博览群书
in order to put together his own wireless telegraph system. 为的是集百家之所长 建造他自己的无线通讯系统
It's possible that because he was brought up in Bologna and it was fairly close to the Italian coast, 他从小在博洛尼亚长大 那里离意大利的海岸很近
that he saw the potential of wireless communications 所以 他很早就预见到了
in relation to maritime usage fairly early on. 无线电系统在海事通信上的巨大前景
Then, aged only 22, he came to London 22岁那年 他与爱尔兰人母亲一起来到伦敦
with his Irish mother to market it. 寻找无线通讯的商业机会
The other person inspired by Lodge's lecture was a teacher 另一个被洛奇的演讲启发的 是一位教师
at the Presidency College in Calcutta, 他就职于加尔各答大学总统学院(加尔各答：印度城市，曾是英属印度的首都)
called Jagadish Chandra Bose. 名叫Jagadish Chandra Bose
Despite degrees from London and Cambridge, 尽管他拥有伦敦大学和剑桥大学的学历
the appointment of an Indian as a scientist in Calcutta 但作为印度人 要想在加尔各答当科学家
had been a battle against racial prejudice. 是需要对抗种族偏见的
Indians, it was said, didn't have the requisite temperament for exact science. 当时的人们认为 印度人不适合研究精密科学
Well, Bose was determined to prove this wrong, 然而 Bose决意推翻这种想法
and here in the archives, we can see just how fast he set to work. 事实上 他很快就做到了
This is a report of the 66th meeting of the British Association 这篇报告 来自第66届英国科学促进协会会议
in Liverpool, September 1896. 会议在1896年9月的利物浦召开
And here is Bose, 这里提到了Bose
the first Indian ever to present at the association meeting, 他是第一个在会议上做报告的印度人
talking about his work and demonstrating his apparatus. 他介绍了自己的研究 演示了他的实验仪器
He'd built and improved on the detector that Lodge described, 它以洛奇的检测器为基础 进行了改良
because in the hot, sticky Indian climate, Bose发现 在酷热潮湿的印度
he'd found that the metal filings inside the tube that Lodge used to detect the waves 使用洛奇检测器时 玻璃管里的铁屑
became rusty and stuck together. 变得锈迹斑斑 黏成了一团
So Bose had to build a more practical detector 所以 Bose把铁屑管换成了线圈
using a coiled wire instead. 造出了一个更实用的检测器
His work was described as a sensation. 他的成果引起了轰动
The detector was extremely reliable and could work onboard ships, 这种检测器十分可靠 能够在船上使用
so had great potential for the vast British naval fleet. 所以 对于庞大的大英海军来说 它前景广阔
Britain was the centre of a vast telecommunications network 当时 英国是电信通讯网络的枢纽
which stretched almost around the world, 这个巨大的网络几乎覆盖了整个世界
which was used to support an equally vast maritime network of 支撑着同样巨大的海运网络
merchant and naval vessels, which were used to support the British Empire. 包括商船和军舰 它们维持着大英帝国的运转
But Bose, a pure scientist, 作为一名纯粹的科学家
wasn't interested in the commercial potential of wireless signals... Bose对无线通讯的商机并不感兴趣
unlike Marconi. 而Marconi正好相反
This was sort of a new, cutting-edge field, but Marconi 可以说 这是一个全新的前沿领域
wasn't a trained scientist, Marconi也不算是真正的科学家
so he came at things in a different way, 他考虑问题的角度与众不同
which may have been why he progressed so quickly in the first place. 也许正因为如此 他才能够进展得如此顺利
And he was very good at forming connections with the people 他长袖善舞 交游广阔
that he needed to form connections with, to enable his work to be done. 善于建立社交圈子 为自己带来利益
Marconi used his connections to go straight to the only place Marconi利用他的人脉
that had the resources to help him. 迅速地得到了需要的资源
The British Post Office was a hugely powerful institution. 英国邮政是一家非常强大的机构
When Marconi first arrived in London in 1896, 1896年初 当Marconi来到伦敦时
these buildings were newly completed and already heaving with business 这些大楼才刚刚竣工 却已客如云集
from the empire's postal and telegraphy services. 国内的邮政和电报业务都十分繁忙
Marconi had brought his telegraph system with him from Italy, Marconi把他的电报系统从意大利带了过来
claiming it could send wireless signals over unheard of distances. 宣称它可以跨越前所未有的距离
And the Post Office Engineer-in-Chief, 英国邮政的总工程师
William Preece, immediately saw the technology's potential. Willian Preece 立刻看出了这项技术的潜力
So, Preece offered Marconi the great financial 于是 Preece以邮政总局的名义
and engineering resources of the Post Office, 为Marconi提供了大笔经费和技术支持
and they started work up on the roof. 随后 他们便在屋顶上开始了研究
The old headquarters of the Post Office were right there. 那边就是英国邮政总部的旧楼
And between this roof and that one, Marconi and the Post Office engineers 在这两个屋顶之间 Marconi和邮政工程师们
would practise sending and receiving electromagnetic waves. 调试着电磁波的发送和接收
The engineers helped him improve his apparatus, 工程师帮助他改良仪器
and then Preece and Marconi together 然后 Preece和Marconi一起
demonstrated it to influential people in Government and the Navy. 向政府和海军的高层展示了实验成果
What Preece didn't realise was that even as he was proudly announcing 但Preece没有想到的是 当他自豪地宣布
Marconi's successful partnership with the Post Office, Marconi和英国邮政之间的合作关系时
Marconi was making plans behind the scenes. Marconi正在打着他自己的算盘
He'd applied for a British patent on the whole field of wireless telegraphy 他为无线电报技术申请了英国专利
and was planning on setting up his own company. 并且正在筹划建立自己的公司
When the patent was granted, all hell broke loose 当专利被批准时
in the scientific community. 科学界炸开了锅
That patent was itself revolutionary. 这是一项破天荒的专利
You see, patents could only be taken out on things 以前 只有新鲜的发明
that weren't public knowledge, 才有资格获得专利
but Marconi famously had hidden his equipment in a secret box. 但是Marconi却直接把设备藏在了一个盒子里
And here it is. 就像这样
When his patent was finally granted, 当专利最终被批准的时候
Marconi ceremoniously opened the box. Marconi隆重地打开了盒子
Everyone was keen to see what inventions lay within. 每个人都想看看 里面到底有什么奥秘
Batteries forming a circuit, 结果 无非就是电路中用到的电池
iron filings in the tube to complete the circuit to ring the bell on top. 使电路闭合的铁屑 以及最后用到的响铃
Nothing they hadn't seen before, 都是人们见过的东西
and yet, Marconi had patented the lot. 而Marconi却为它申请了专利
The reason Marconi is famous is not because of that invention. Marconi能出名 并不是因为这个发明
He doesn't invent radio, but he improves it 他并没有发明无线电通信 但是他做出了改良
and turns it into a system. 让它成为了一个完整的系统
Lodge doesn't do that. And that's why we remember Marconi, 洛奇没有做到这一点 所以我们记住的是Marconi
and that's why we don't remember Lodge. 而不是洛奇
The scientific world was up in arms. 科学界为此集体震怒
Here was this young man who knew very little about the science behind his equipment 这个年轻人对无线电系统的原理知之甚少
about to make his fortune, from their work. 却用别人的研究结果 来为自己谋取私利
Even his great supporter Preece, was disappointed and hurt 就连曾经最支持他的Preece
when he found out Marconi was about to go it alone 在得知Marconi打算自立门户时
and set up his own company. 也非常失望 伤透了心
Lodge and other scientists began a frenzy of patenting 从此 洛奇和其他科学家们掀起了一场专利热
every tiny detail and improvement 哪怕只对设备做出了一丁点的改进
they made to their equipment. 他们都要申请一个专利
This new atmosphere shocked Bose when he returned to Britain. Bose回到英国后 着实被这种风气所震惊
Bose wrote home to India in disgust 在Bose寄回印度的家信中
at what he found in England. 他嗤之以鼻地讲述了自己的所见所闻
"Money, money, money all the time, what a devouring greed! “钱 钱 永远都是钱 这个被贪欲吞噬的世界！
"I wish you could see the craze for money of the people here." “你真该看看这些见钱眼开的铜臭嘴脸”
His disillusionment with the changes he saw in the country 他所崇敬的那种严谨而诚实的治学氛围不复存在
he revered for scientific integrity and excellence is palpable. Bose对英国学术界大失所望
Eventually, though, it was his friends 但最终 在朋友的劝说下
who convinced Bose to take out his one and only patent, 他申请了自己唯一的一项专利
on his discovery of a new kind of detector for waves. 一种新型电波检测器
It was this discovery that would lead to perhaps an even greater revolution for the world. 这个发明 导致了一轮意义更为深远的技术革命
He had discovered the power of crystals. 他发现了晶体的神奇魔力
This replaces older techniques using iron filings, 它们可以取代旧设备中的铁屑
which are messy and difficult and don't work well. 铁屑不仅散乱不堪 使用效果也不是很好
And here's a whole new way of detecting radio waves, 这是一种检测电波的新方法
and it's one that's going to be at the centre of a radio industry. 它也将成为无线电产业的核心
Bose's discovery was simple, Bose的发现其实很简单
but it would truly shape the modern world. 但它却造就了现代社会
When some crystals are touched with metal to test their electrical conductivity, 人们用金属导线去测量一些晶体的导电性时
they can show rather odd and varied behaviour. 会发生各种奇怪的现象
Take this crystal, for example. 比如这块晶体
If I can touch it in exactly the right spot with the tip of this metal wire, 如果我把金属线的尖端连接到这儿
and then hook it up to a battery, 然后接上电池
it gives quite a significant current. 就会产生一股很大的电流
But if I switch round my connections to the battery 但如果我把电池的正负极倒转
and try and pass the current through in the opposite direction... 尝试让电流反向通过的话
it's a lot less. 电流就会小得多
It's not a full conductor of electricity, it's a semi-conductor. 这种不完全的导体 被称作半导体
And it found its first use in detecting electromagnetic waves. 而半导体最早的用途 就是探测电磁波
When Bose used a crystal like this in his circuits Bose将这样一块晶体放进了他的电路中
instead of the tube of filings, 代替铁屑管
he found it was a much more efficient and effective detector of electromagnetic waves. 发现它能更高效地探测电磁波
It was this strange property of the junction between the wire, 这根导线叫做“猫须”探针
known as the "cat's whisker", and the crystal, which allowed current to pass 在它和晶体的交界处 有一种奇怪的导电性质
much more easily on one direction than the other, 它的电导率取决于电流的方向
that meant it could be used to extract a signal from electromagnetic waves. 这意味着 它可以用来读取电磁波中的信息
At the time, no-one had any idea why certain crystals acted in this way. 当时 人们并不知道为什么某些晶体会有这种性质
But to scientists and engineers, this strange behaviour 但对于科学家和工程师来说 这种特殊的导电性
had a profound and almost miraculous practical effect. 有着广泛而奇妙的用处
With crystals as detectors, 使用晶体检测器
now it was possible to broadcast and detect the actual sound of a human voice, or music. 我们便能播送和收听人声 或者音乐
In his Oxford lecture in 1894, 在1894年的牛津演讲中
Oliver Lodge had opened a Pandora's box. 洛奇打开了一个潘多拉之盒
As an academic, he'd failed to foresee that the scientific discoveries he'd been such a part of 作为一个学者 他没能看出自己的这项科学发现
had such commercial potential. 会有如此大的商机
The one patent he had managed to secure, 而他所拥有的唯一一项专利
the crucial means of tuning a receiver to a particular radio signal, 给接收器调频 以收听特定频率的方法
was bought off him by Marconi's powerful company. 也被Marconi财大气粗的公司买走了
Perhaps the worst indignation for Lodge, though, would come in 1909, 但或许最让洛奇气愤的 应该是在1909年
when Marconi was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for wireless communication. Marconi因为无线电通信 被授予诺贝尔物理学奖
It's difficult to imagine a bigger snub to the physicist 对于一位物理学家来说 这无疑是最残酷的事情了
who'd so narrowly missed out to Hertz in the discovery of radio waves, 在发现电磁波时 他因为一次度假败给了赫兹
and who'd then go on to show the world 后来 在宣布无线电收发技术时
how they could be sent and received. 他又一次被人领先
But despite this snub, Lodge remained magnanimous, 尽管如此 洛奇仍展现出了不凡的气度
using the new broadcasting technology that resulted from his work to give credit to others, 他用自己开创的无线电技术 来肯定其他人的贡献
as this rare film of him shows. 一部珍贵的影片记录了这一幕
Hertz made a great advance. 赫兹有了很大的进展
He discovered how to produce and detect waves in space, 他发现了产生和探测电磁波的方法
thus bringing the ether into practical use. 使无线电能够真正投入使用
Harnessing it, harnessing it for the transmission of intelligence 他驾驭了电磁波 利用它来传送信息
in a way which has subsequently been elaborated by a number of people. 而他的方法 也相继被许多人不断地完善...
Today, we can hardly imagine a world without broadcasting, 今天的我们无法想象
to imagine a time when radio waves hadn't even been dreamt of. 在广播和无线电技术问世之前 世界是什么模样
Engineers continued to refine and perfect our ability 工程师们不断地改进着
to transmit and receive electromagnetic waves, 电磁波的传送和接收技术
but their initial discovery was ultimately a triumph of pure science, 他们依靠的 是麦克斯韦 赫兹 洛奇这些电学家
from Maxwell, through Hertz, to Lodge. 所奠定的坚实的理论基础
But still, the very nature of electricity itself remained unexplained. 然而 对于电的本质 人们仍然一知半解
What created those electrical charges and currents in the first place? 到底是什么产生了电荷和电流？
Although scientists were learning to exploit electricity, 尽管科学家们通过各种方法 发掘电的用途
they still didn't know what it actually was. 他们却不了解电的本质
But this question was being answered with experiments 不过 当人们进行实验
looking into how electricity flowed through different materials. 观测电在各种物质中的运动时 这个问题得到了解答
Back in the 1850s, one of Germany's great experimentalists 在19世纪50年代 德国最负盛名的实验学家之一
and a talented glass blower, Heinrich Geissler, Heinrich Geissler 凭借高超的玻璃加工技巧
created these beautiful showpieces. 制造出了这些美丽的玻璃管
Geissler pumped most of the air out of these intricate glass tubes Geissler把这些精细的玻璃管抽到接近真空
and then had small amounts of other gases pumped in. 然后注入了一些其他气体
He then passed an electrical current through them. 当他给这些玻璃管通上电时
They glowed with stunning colours, 它们发出了鲜艳的光芒
and the current flowing through the gas seemed tangible. 仿佛电流有了颜色一样
Although they were designed purely for entertainment, 尽管这些彩色玻璃管的目的只是娱乐
over the next 50 years, 但在随后的半个世纪里
scientists saw Giessler's tubes as a chance 科学家们开始利用Giessler管
to study how electricity flowed. 来研究电流的流动方式
Efforts were made to pump more and more air out of the tubes. 人们努力提高管内的真空度
Could the electric current pass through nothingness? 来观察电流的传递是否需要介质
Through the vacuum? 它在真空中能传播吗？
This is a very rare flick book film of the British scientist 这是一部珍贵的翻页电影 主角是一位英国科学家
who created a vacuum good enough to answer that question. 他造出了一个真空度极高的玻璃管 解答了这个问题
His name was William Crookes. 他就是William Crookes
Crookes create tubes like this. 这就是Crookes造出的管子
He pumped out as much of the air as he could 他用各种办法排出管中的空气
so that it was as close to a vacuum as he could make it. 这是他所能创造的最接近真空的环境
Then, when he passed an electrical current through the tube... 然后 当他让电流通过管子时...
...he noticed a bright glow on the far end. 他发现 玻璃管的末端有一个明亮的光斑
A beam seemed to be shining through the tube 仿佛有一道光束穿过了管子
and hitting the glass at the other end. 击中了另一端
It seemed, at last, we could see electricity. 终于 我们似乎能够“看见”电了
The beam became known as a cathode ray, 这条光束就是阴极射线
and this tube was the forerunner of the cathode ray tube 而这个玻璃管 就是阴极射线管的前身
that was used in television sets for decades. 它作为早期电视机的零件 被大规模地使用了几十年
Physicist JJ Thompson discovered that these beams 物理学家J·J·汤姆生发现
were made up of tiny, negatively charged particles, 这种光束是由带负电的粒子组成的
and because they were carriers of electricity, they became known as electrons. 这些带电粒子被称作“电子”
Because the electrons only moved in one direction, 这些电子单向运动
from the heated metal plate through the positively charged plate at the other end, 从阴极的高温金属射向另一端的阳极
they behaved in exactly the same way as Bose's semi-conductor crystals. 它们的运动方式 和在Bose的晶体里是完全一样的
But, whereas Bose's crystals were naturally temperamental - 不过 晶体的导电性非常不稳定
you had to find the right spot for them to work - 必须找到正确的接触点 它们才能工作
these tubes could be manufactured consistently. 而Crookes的管子 可以大规模地连续生产
They became known as valves, 它们被称作“电子管”
and they soon replaced crystals in radio sets everywhere. 很快 电子管就取代了收音机里的晶体接收器
These discoveries would lead to an explosion of new technology. 这些新发现 拉开了一场技术飞跃的序幕
Early 20th century electronics is all about what you can do with valves. 20世纪早期的电学研究 全部集中在电子管上
So, the radio industries is built on valves, 人们用电子管制造收音机
early television is built on valves, 电视机
early computers are built with valves. 还有计算机
These are what you build the electronic world with. 在当时 电子管是各种电子设备的基石
Having discovered how to manipulate electrons flowing through a vacuum, 在掌握了电子通过真空的方式后
scientists were now keen to understand 科学家希望能进一步理解
how they could flow through other materials. 电子在物体中的运动规律
But that meant understanding the things that made up materials - 也就是说 他们需要探究组成物质的基本组成
atoms. 原子
It was in the early years of the 20th century that we finally 20世纪初 我们终于能够
got a handle on exactly what atoms were made up of and how they behaved. 一窥原子的结构 了解它的内在规律
And so, what electricity actually was on the atomic scale. 同时 我们也从原子层面上重新认识了电
At the University of Manchester, Ernest Rutherford's team 在曼彻斯特大学 卢瑟福的小组
were studying the inner structure of the atom 在对原子内部结构进行研究后
and producing a picture to describe what an atom looked like. 绘制出了原子的图像
This revelation would finally help explain some of the more puzzling features of electricity. 这一研究结果 有助于人们理解一些奇特的电学现象
By 1913, the picture of the atom was one in which you had 到1913年时 人们已经基本了解原子的构造了
a positively charged nucleus in the middle 原子的中心 是一个带正电的原子核
surrounded by negatively charged orbiting electrons, 带负电的电子环绕原子核运动
in patterns called shells. 电子的运动轨道叫做“壳层”
Each of these shells corresponded to an electron with a particular energy. 每一个壳层都与电子的一个能量等级相对应
Now, given an energy boost, an electron could jump 当电子接收能量时 会从低壳层
from an inner shell to an outer one. 跳跃到更高的壳层上
And the energy had to be just right - 当然 能量必须足够大
if it wasn't enough, the electron wouldn't make the transition. 否则 电子是不会跃迁的
And this boost was often temporary because the electron 跃迁只是一个暂时的状态
would then drop back down again to its original shell. 因为电子最终会回到原来的壳层上
As it did this, it had to give off its excess energy 当它返回时 会以光子的形式
by spitting out a photon... 释放出多余的能量
...and the energy of each photon depended on its wavelength, 不同能量的光子具有不同的波长
or, as we would perceive it, its colour. 也就是我们看到的不同颜色
Understanding the structure of atoms could now also explain 有了对原子结构的认识后 我们便能顺理成章地解释
nature's great electrical light shows. 自然界种种壮观的光电现象了
Just like Geissler's tubes, 在Geissler管里
the type of gas the electricity passes through defines its colour. 电流穿过的气体 决定了电流所呈现的颜色
Lightning has a blue tinge because of the nitrogen in our atmosphere. 同理 闪电的浅蓝色 是大气中的氮造成的
Higher in the atmosphere, the gases are different 而在更高的大气中 气体成分和低空有所不同
and so is the colour of the photons they produce, 所以它们会放射出其他颜色的光子
creating the spectacular auroras. 形成流光溢彩的极光
Understanding atoms, how they fit together in materials 我们了解了原子如何组成物质
and how their electrons behave, was the final key to understanding 以及电子的运动规律后 便向揭开电的本质
the fundamental nature of electricity. 又迈出了一大步
This is a Wimshurst Machine 这是维姆斯特起电机
and it's used to generate electric charge. 人们用它来产生电荷
Electrons are rubbed off these discs and start a flow of electricity 这些转盘在摩擦时释放电子 形成一股电流
through the metal arms of the machine. 电流随即从起电机的金属杆上流过
Now, metals conduct electricity 金属能导电的原因在于
because the electrons are very weakly bound inside their atoms 它们的原子核束缚电子的能力比较弱
and so can slosh about and be used to flow as electricity. 所以 电子能够轻松地移动 形成电流
Insulators, on the other hand, don't conduct electricity 而绝缘体不能导电
because the electrons are very tightly bound inside the atoms 是因为它们的电子被原子核紧紧束缚
and are not free to move about. 无法自由移动
The flow of electrons, and hence electricity, 电子转移的理论
through materials was now understood. 解释了物体导电的根本原因
Conductors and insulators could be explained. 以及导体和绝缘体的区别
What was more difficult to understand 但仍有一个悬而未决的谜题
was the strange properties of semi-conductors. 那就是半导体神奇的导电性
Our modern electronic world is built upon semi-conductors 现代社会的运转完全依赖于半导体
and would grind to a halt without them. 它是这个时代必不可少的一部分
Jagadish Chandra Bose may have stumbled upon their properties back in the 1890s, 19世纪90年代 Bose在无意间发现了半导体的特性
but no-one could have foreseen just how important they were to become. 但在当时 人们并不知道半导体即将扮演的重要角色
But, with the outbreak of the Second World War, 然而 随着二战爆发
things were about to change. 历史的轨迹即将改变
Here in Oxford, this newly built physics laboratory 牛津大学的这所物理实验室才刚刚建成
was immediately handed over to the war research effort. 就立刻投入了战时科研工作
The researchers here were tasked with improving the British radar system. 这里的研究员们肩负着改进英国雷达的使命
Radar was a technology that used electromagnetic waves 雷达能利用电磁波 发现敌军的轰炸机
to detect enemy bombers, and as its accuracy improved, 而随着雷达精度的提高
it became clear that valves just weren't up to the job. 人们发现 电子管的效果并不理想
So, the team had to turn to old technology - 于是 他们转向了旧的技术
instead of valves, they used semi-conductor crystals. 用半导体来替代电子管
Now, they didn't use the same sort of crystals 不过 他们不再使用
that Bose had developed - instead they used silicon. Bose发现的晶体 而改用硅晶体
This device is a silicon crystal receiver. 这是一个硅晶体接收器
There's a tiny tungsten wire coiled down 一根弯曲的小钨丝
and touching the surface of a little silicon crystal. 和下方的一小块硅晶体相触
It's incredible how important a device it was. 它的意义绝非一般
It was the first time silicon had really been exploited as a semi-conductor, 这是人类首次在电子元件中使用半导体硅
but for it to work, it needed to be very pure 但是 只有高纯度的硅晶体才能发挥作用
and both sides in the war put a lot of resources into purifying it. 战争双方都投入了大量的人力物力 进行硅的提纯
In fact, the British had better silicon devices 英国的提纯设备质量更好
so they must have had some coils of silicon already at that time 他们当时肯定已经积累了大量的硅
which we were just starting with, you know, in Berlin. 而柏林才刚刚起步
The British had better silicon semi-conductors 英国在硅半导体领域的领先地位
because they had help from laboratories in the US, 得益于美国实验室
in particular, the famous Bell Labs. 尤其是著名的贝尔实验室的支持
And it wasn't long before physicists realised 很快 人们便意识到
that if semi-conductors could replace valves in radar, 如果半导体能替换雷达里的电子管
perhaps they could replace valves in other devices too, like amplifiers. 那么它也能替换其他设备 比如放大器中的电子管
The simple vacuum tube, with its one-way stream of electrons, 而控制电子单向流动的真空管
had been modified to produce a new device. 被改造成了一种新装置
By placing a metal grill in the path of the electrons 如果在电子通过的路径上 放置一个金属架
and applying a tiny voltage to it, 并给它加上微弱的电压
a dramatic change in the strength of the beam could be produced. 管内的电流强度就会发生极大的变化
These valves worked as amplifiers, 这种电子管起到了放大器的作用
turning a very weak electrical signal into a much stronger one. 它能将微弱的电子信号放大许多倍
An amplifier is something, in one sense, really simple. 放大器的原理其实非常简单
You just take a small current, you turn it into a larger current. 输入一个比较小的电流 它会输出放大的电流
But in other ways, it changes the world, 而正是这样一种简单的装置 改变了世界
because when you can amplify a signal, 因为我们一旦能放大信号
you can send it anywhere in the world. 就能把信号传送到世界每个角落
As soon as the war was over, German expert Herbert Matare 战争结束后 德国学者Herbert Matare
and his colleague, Heinrich Welker, started to build 和他的同事Heinrich Welker 开始着手制作
a semi-conductor device that could be used as an electrical amplifier. 一种以半导体为材料的电子放大器
And here is that first working model that Matare and Welker made. 这就是Matare和Welker做出的第一个原型
If you look inside, you can see the tiny crystal 我们可以看到里面的小晶体块
and the wires that make contact with it. 还有它们之间的导线
If you pass a small current through one of the wires, 如果我们从一头传进微弱的电流
this allows a much larger current to flow through the other one, 另一头就会输出放大的电流
so it was acting as a signal amplifier. 它起到了放大电信号的作用
These tiny devices could replace big, expensive valves 这些小零件可以替换巨大而昂贵的电子管
in long distance telephone networks, radios and other equipment 无论是在长途电话 广播还是其他设备中
where a faint signal needed boosting. 它们都能放大那些微弱的信号
Matare immediately realised what he'd created, Matare很快就发现了半导体放大器的应用前景
but his bosses were initially not interested. 但他的老板起初对此不感兴趣
Not, that is, until a paper appeared in a journal 直到期刊上的一篇论文
announcing a Bell Labs discovery. 宣布了贝尔实验室的新成果
A research team there had stumbled across the same effect 他们的一个研究小组也发现了同样的现象
and now they were announcing their invention to the world. 并发表了他们的研究成果
They called it the transistor. 他们把它叫做“晶体管”
They had it in December 1947, and we had it in beginning '48. 他们是1947年12月发现的 我们是1948年初
But just, just life, you know. 世事无常啊
They had it a little bit earlier, the effect. 他们只比我们早了一点
But, funnily enough, their transistors were just no good. 不过 怎么说呢 他们的晶体管质量很差
Although the European device was more reliable 尽管欧洲的晶体管
than Bell Labs' more experimental model, 比贝尔实验室的要更稳定
neither quite fulfilled their promise - 两家的产品都只能算是差强人意
they worked, but were just too delicate. 虽然能工作 但都十分脆弱
So the search was on for a more robust way to amplify electrical signals 人们继续寻找着更耐用的放大元件
and the breakthrough came by accident. 一次意外 为他们带来了意想不到的突破
In Bell Labs, silicon crystal expert Russell Ohl 一次 贝尔实验室的硅晶体专家Russell Ohl注意到
noticed that one of his silicon ingots had a really bizarre property. 他手头的一个硅块表现出了反常的现象
It seemed to be able to generate its own voltage 它似乎可以改变自己的电压
and when he tried to measure this by hooking it up to an Oscilloscope, 当他把硅块接到示波器上时
he noticed that the voltage changed all the time. 发现电压会不断地变化
The amount of voltage it generated seemed to depend on 硅块产生的电压 似乎和实验室的光照
how much light there was in the room. 存在着某种联系
So, by casting a shadow over the crystal, 当硅块被影子遮挡时
he saw the voltage dropped. 电压会下降
More light meant the voltage went up. 而光照越强 电压就越高
What's more, when he turned a fan on between the lamp and the crystal 当他把一台电扇放在电灯和硅块之间时
the voltage started to oscillate with the same frequency 随着扇叶的旋转 它在硅块上的投影
that the blades of the fan were casting shadows over the crystal. 会使电压产生有规律的波动
One of Ohl's colleagues immediately realised Ohl的一位同事马上意识到
that the ingot had a crack in it that formed a natural junction, 这块晶体里面有一个裂缝 形成了自然的交界(也称作“结”)
and this tiny natural junction in an otherwise solid block 硅块上这个微小的交界
was acting just like the much more delicate junction 其实和Bose发现的
between the end of a wire and a crystal that Bose had discovered. 金属与晶体之间的连接处 起到了相同的作用
Except here, it was sensitive to light. 只不过 它会受光的影响
The ingot had cracked because either side contained 硅块中之所以会出现裂缝
slightly different amounts of impurities. 是因为它两侧的杂质浓度不相等
One side had slightly more of the element phosphorous, 一侧的磷元素略多
while the other had slightly more of a different impurity - boron. 而另一侧的硼元素略多
And electrons seemed to be able to move across 电子能从含磷的一侧
from the phosphorous side to the boron side, but not vice versa. 流动到含硼的一侧 却无法反向流动
Photons of light shining down onto the crystal 照在晶体上的光
were knocking electrons out of the atoms, 使电子脱离原子核的束缚
but it was the impurity atoms that were driving this flow. 然后 两种杂质原子驱使电子开始流动
Phosphorous has an electron that is going spare... 磷原子有一个自由电子
and boron is keen to accept another, 而硼的外壳层刚好缺少一个电子
so electrons tended to flow from the phosphorous side 因此 电子会从含磷的一侧
to the boron side and, crucially, only flowed one way across the junction. 流向含硼的一侧 重要的是 电子是单向流动的
The head of the semi-conductor team, William Shockley, 半导体研究小组的William Shockley组长
saw the potential of this one-way junction within a crystal, 意识到 晶体的这种单向导电性具有很大潜力
but how would it be possible to create a crystal 然而 要怎样才能制造出
with two junctions in it that could be used as an amplifier? 带两个结的晶体 以便制成放大器呢
Another researcher at Bell Labs called Gordon Teal 当时 贝尔实验室的另一位研究员 Gordon Teal
had been working on a technique that would allow just that. 恰好正在研究这种技术
He'd discovered a special way to grow single crystals 他发现了一种特殊的方法 可以培养出
of the semi-conductor germanium. 锗的单晶体
In this research institute, they grow semi-conductor crystals 这所研究机构培养半导体晶体的方法
in the same way that Teal did back in Bell Labs - 跟Teal当年在贝尔实验室所用的是一样的
only here, they grow them much, much bigger. 只不过 这里培养的晶体要大很多
At the bottom of this vat is a container with glowing hot, 这个容器的底部 是高温的液态锗
molten germanium, just as pure as you can get it. 纯度非常高
Inside it are a few atoms of whatever impurity is required 我们可以根据需要 向里面添加一定浓度的杂质
to alter its conductive properties. 来改变它的导电性
Now, the rotating arm above has a seed crystal at the bottom 转轴的下面 固定着一块晶体种子
that has been dipped into the liquid and will be slowly raised up again. 它现在还在液面以下 一会儿将慢慢升起来
As the germanium cools and hardens, it forms a long crystal 当液态锗冷却凝固后 会形成柱状的晶体
like an icicle, below the seed. 就像冰柱一样
The whole length is one single, beautiful germanium crystal. 成为一块完美的单晶锗
Teal worked out that, as the crystal is growing, Teal发现 当晶体生长时
other impurities can be added to the vat and mixed in. 可以向容器里添加杂质 混入晶体中
This gives us a single crystal with thin layers of different impurities 这样形成的晶体 内部会具有不同的杂质层
creating junctions within the crystal. 也就是“结”
This crystal with two junctions in it was Shockley's dream. Shockley一直希望能制造出这种带有两个结的晶体
Applying a small current through the very thin middle section 只要在狭窄的中心区域加上一些电流
allows a much larger current to flow through the whole triple sandwich. 就能使晶体的两端具有电流放大作用
From a single crystal like this, 从这一整块晶体上
hundreds of tiny solid blocks could be cut, 可以切割出几百块小晶体
each containing the two junctions that would allow the movement of electrons through them 每一块都包含两个结 它们能够
to be precisely controlled. 精确地控制电子的流动
These tiny and reliable devices 这些微小而可靠的元件
could be used in all sorts of electrical equipment. 被用在各种电子设备中
You cannot have the electronic equipment that we have without tiny components. 如今的电子产品 都在使用这些微型元件
And you get a weird effect - the smaller they get, the more reliable they get, 有一个神奇的现象 它们的体积越小 反而会越稳定
it's a win-win situation. 既小又好 多棒啊
The Bell Labs team were awarded the Nobel Prize 贝尔实验室的晶体管改变了世界
for their world changing invention, 他们也因此获得了诺贝尔奖
while the European team were forgotten. 而欧洲的研究小组 则淡出了人们的视线
William Shockley left Bell Labs, William Shockley离开了贝尔实验室
and in 1955 set up his own 1955年 他在加州的乡下
semi-conductor Laboratory in rural California, 创立了自己的半导体实验室
recruiting the country's best physics graduates. 聘请了国内最优秀的物理学者
But the celebratory mood didn't last long, 不过好景并不长
because Shockley was almost impossible to work for. 因为Shockley不是个好上司
People left his company because they just disliked the way he treated them. 他和下属的关系很差 公司员工纷纷离职
So, the fact that Shockley was actually such a git 可以说 要没有Shockley糟糕的个性
is why you have Silicon Valley. 就不会有今天的硅谷
It starts that whole process of spin-off and growth and new companies, 离职的员工自谋生路 创办了许多新的公司
and it all starts off with Shockley being such a shocking human being. 归根究底 一切都始于Shockley的坏脾气
The new companies were in competition with each other 这些新公司之间的竞争非常激烈
to come up with the latest semi-conductor devices. 他们争先恐后地推出新型半导体元件
They made transistors so small 晶体管越做越小
that huge numbers of them could be incorporated into an electrical circuit 到后来 在一小块半导体晶片上
printed on a single slice of semi-conductor crystal. 已经能够印制大量的微型晶体管
These tiny and reliable chips could be used in all sorts of electrical equipment... 现代的电子设备中 大量运用了这些集成芯片
most famously in computers. 尤其是计算机
A new age had dawned. 人类步入了一个崭新的时代
Today, microchips are everywhere. 今天 集成芯片无处不在
They've transformed almost every aspect of modern life, 他们塑造了现代生活的方方面面
from communication to transport and entertainment. 无论是通讯 运输 或是娱乐
But, perhaps, just as importantly, 而同样重要的是
our computers have become so powerful 利用无比强大的现代计算机
they're helping us to understand the universe in all its complexity. 我们能更深入地去探索宇宙的奥秘
A single microchip like this one today 就在这一小块集成芯片里
can contain around four billion transistors. 一共有40多亿个晶体管
It's incredible how far technology has come in 60 years. 在过去的60年里 科学技术日新月异
It's easy to think that with the great leaps we've made 也许你会觉得 经过这些巨大的飞跃后
in understanding and exploiting electricity, 我们已经彻底地理解和掌握了电
there's little left to learn about it. 电学的发展已经接近尾声了
But we'd be wrong. 但事实绝非如此
For instance, making the circuits smaller and smaller 比如 在微电路越来越小的同时
meant that a particular feature of electricity that had been known about for over a century 一个我们早已熟知的电学现象
was becoming more and more problematic. 发展成了一个不容忽视的问题
Resistance. 这就是电阻
A computer chip has to be continuously cooled. 计算机的芯片必须持续散热
If you take away the fan, this is what happens. 如果我们拆下风扇 就会看到这样一幕
Wow! That's shooting up! 哇 温度在急剧增加
100, 120, 130 degrees... 100度 120度 130度...
...200 degrees, and it cut out. ...200度的时候 就坏掉了
That just took a few seconds and the chip is well and truly cooked. 只用了几秒时间 芯片就彻底烧毁了
You see, as the electrons flow through the chip, 这是因为 当电子流过芯片时
they're not just travelling around unimpeded. 并不是畅通无阻的
They're bumping into the atoms of silicone, 它们会和硅原子发生碰撞
and the energy being lost by these electrons is producing heat. 碰撞使电子释放能量 变成热能
Now, sometimes this was useful. 有时候 这是一件好事
Inventors made electric heaters and ovens, 我们根据这个原理 发明了电热器和电烤箱
and whenever they got something to glow white-hot, 当灯丝进入白热状态时
well, that's a light bulb. 就成了白炽灯
But resistance in electronic apparatus, 不过 在电子设备
and in power lines, 和输电线路中
is the major waste of energy 电阻会浪费大量电能
and a huge problem. 这是一个严重的问题
It's thought that resistance wastes up to 20% 科学家认为 全世界的总发电量中
of all the electricity we generate. 有20%都浪费在了电阻上
It's one of the greatest problems of modern times. 可以说 这是现代社会的一大难题
And the search is on for a way to solve the problem of resistance. 科学家们也正在想方设法 减少电阻带来的浪费
What we think of as temperature 我们熟知的“温度”
is really a measure of how much the atoms in a material are vibrating. 其实就是原子运动的剧烈程度
And if the atoms are vibrating, 原子的运动越剧烈
then electrons flowing through 经过的电子
are more likely to bump into them. 就越可能和它发生碰撞
So, in general, the hotter the material, 所以 一般来说 物质的温度越高
the higher its electrical resistance, 它的电阻就越大
and the cooler it is, the lower the resistance. 温度越低 电阻就越小
But what happens if you cool something right down, 然而 如果我们不断降低物体的温度
close to absolute zero, 直到接近绝对零度
-273 degrees Celsius? 也就是零下273度时 会怎样呢？
Well, at absolute zero, there's no heat at all, 绝对零度 意味着没有任何热量
and so the atoms aren't moving at all. 也就是说 原子完全停止运动
What happens then to the flow of electricity? 这会对电流产生什么影响？
The flow of electrons? 电子的运动会有什么变化？
Using a special device called a cryostat, 利用一种名为恒温器的装置
that can keep things close to absolute zero, we can find out. 我们可以将物体冷冻到接近绝对零度 来寻找答案
Inside this cryostat, in this coil, is mercury, 在这个恒温器里 有一个水银线圈
the famous liquid metal. 在室温下 它是液态的
And it forms part of an electric circuit. 线圈和外面的电路相连
Now, this equipment here measures the resistance in the mercury, 这边的装置用来测量线圈的电阻
but look what happens as I lower the mercury 现在我把线圈
into the coldest part of the cryostat. 推到最冷的地方去
There it is. The resistance has dropped to absolutely nothing. 你看 电阻彻底消失了
Mercury, like many substances we now know, 水银 还有一些其他的物质
have this property. It's called "becoming super conducting", 都具有这种特性 也就是所谓的“超导状态”
which means they have no resistance at all to the flow of electricity. 在这种状态下 它们对电流不产生任何阻碍
But these materials only work when they're very, very cold. 可是 这些材料只有在超低温时 才能进入超导状态
If we could use a superconducting material in our power cables, 如果我们在输电线路
and in our electronic apparatus, 或者电子设备里使用超导体
we'd avoid losing so much of our precious electrical energy through resistance. 就能大幅减少电阻造成的电力浪费
The problem, of course, is that superconductors had to be kept 当然 现在的问题是 目前的超导体
at extremely low temperatures. 都必须在极低的温度下工作
Then, in 1986, 然而 1986年
a breakthrough was made. 科学家有了重大突破
In a small laboratory near Zurich, Switzerland, 在瑞士苏黎世附近的一家研究所里
IBM physicists recently discovered superconductivity in a new class of materials IBM的物理学家发现了一种新型超导材料
that is being called one of the most important scientific breakthroughs in many decades. 据说 这是几十年里最重要的科学发现之一
This is a block of the same material made by the researchers in Switzerland. 这块材料 就是他们的新发现
It doesn't look very remarkable, 看上去并没有特别之处
but if you cool it down with liquid nitrogen, 可是 当我用液氮降低它的温度时
something special happens. 就会发生神奇的现象
It becomes a superconductor, 它变成了超导体
and because electricity and magnetism are so tightly linked, 由于电和磁有着密切的联系
that gives it equally extraordinary magnetic properties. 这块材料也具有不可思议的磁效应
This magnet is suspended, 你看 这块磁铁
levitating above the superconductor. 就这么悬浮在超导体的上面
The exciting thing is, that although cold, 更重要的是 虽然它仍然处于低温状态
this material is way above absolute zero. 但比起绝对零度 已经高出了不少
These magnetic fields are so strong 它的磁场非常强劲
that not only can they support the weight of this magnet, 不光能托起这块磁铁
but they should also support my weight. 还能支撑起我的体重
I'm about to be levitated. 我来体验一下磁悬浮
Oh, it's a very, very strange sensation. 喔 这感觉太神奇了
When this material was first discovered in 1986, 1986年 这种材料的面世
it created a revolution. 引起了一场轰动
Not only had no-one considered that it might be superconducting, 人们不曾想到 它会是超导材料
but it was doing so at a temperature much warmer than anyone had thought possible. 更没有预料到 它的超导温度会有这么高
We are tantalisingly close to getting room temperature superconductors. 我们离室温超导体只有一步之遥
We're not there yet, but one day, a new material will be found. 虽然我们现在还没有找到它 但这只是时间问题
And when we put that into our electronics equipment, 如果我们能在电子设备里使用这种超导体
we could build a cheaper, better, more sustainable world. 就能创造出一个节能 可持续发展的新世界
Today, materials have been produced that exhibit this phenomenon 我们最近发现的一些材料
at the sort of temperatures you get in your freezer. 甚至在家用冰箱里 就能呈现出超导特性
But these new superconductors can't be fully explained by the theoreticians. 但目前的物理理论 还无法解释它们背后的原理
So without a complete understanding, 所以 在对超导现象没有完全掌握之前
experimentalists are often guided as much by luck 指引科学家们探索的 更多的是运气
as they are by a proper scientific understanding. 而不是真正的科学理论
Recently, a laboratory in Japan held a party 最近 日本的一个实验室举办了一场聚会
in which they ended up dosing their superconductors 他们把超导体
with a range of alcoholic beverages. 泡在各种酒类里
Unexpectedly, they found that red wine 结果意外地发现
improves the performance of the superconductors. 红酒能提高超导体的性能
Electrical research 在未来的某一天
now has the potential, once again, to revolutionise our world, 电学研究会再次改变世界
If room temperature superconductors can be found. 这就是当我们找到室温超导体的时候
Our addiction to electricity's power is only increasing. 人类对电力的需求与日俱增
And when we fully understand how to exploit superconductors, 如果我们能彻底揭开超导体的奥秘
a new electrical world will be upon us. 那么迎接我们的 将是一片新天地
It's going to lead to one of the most exciting periods of human discovery and invention, 到那时 各种激动人心的发明创造
a brand-new set of tools, techniques and technologies 还有崭新的工具和技术
to once again transform the world. 将使世界发生翻天覆地的巨变
Electricity has changed our world. 电深刻地改变了世界
Only a few hundred years ago, it was seen as a mysterious and magical wonder. 短短几百年前 人们还把电看作一种神秘的现象
Then, it leapt out of the laboratory 经过科学家们的不懈探索
with a series of strange and wondrous experiments, 它终于从一个遥不可及的科学谜题
eventually being captured and put to use. 变成了我们生活中必不可少的一部分
It revolutionised communication, 它奠定了现代通信的基础
first through cables, and then as waves through electricity's far-reaching fields. 从最早的电缆电报 到今天的无线通讯
It powers and lights the modern world. 电照亮了我们的世界
Today, we can hardly imagine life without electricity. 时至今日 它已经彻底地融入了我们的生活
It defines our era, and we'd be utterly lost without it. 塑造了我们的时代 成为了现代社会的基础
And yet, it still offers us more. 然而 它的潜力不止如此
We stand, once again, at the beginning of a new age of discovery, 今天的我们 再次来到了一个新纪元的开端
a new revolution. 一场新的技术革命即将到来
But above all else, 而最重要的是
there's one thing that all those who deal in the science of electricity know - 听完这段历史 你也会和我一样相信
its story is not over yet. 电的故事 还远远没有结束
To find out more about the story of electricity, 想要更深入了解电学的故事
and to put your power knowledge to the test, 或者测试自己的能量学知识
try the Open University's interactive energy game. 欢迎参与公开大学的互动能量学小游戏
Go to bbc.co.uk/electricity 请访问bbc.co.uk/electricity
...and follow links to the Open University. 然后根据网页指示 去公开大学的主页