请注意本视频包含可能引起部分观众不适的场景和闪烁画面
拉斯维加斯城外约 50 公里处
真的到处都是...
哇！
真的好蓝
你该过来看看
真的太蓝了
看你找到了多少！
我感觉像指环王里的咕噜
我的宝贝！
要是没这么危险
这倒是个有趣的活动
这些是大块的
那那些肉眼看不见的微粒呢？
This same kind of material was used in the construction
这种材料也曾用于
of the World Trade Center buildings.
世贸中心大楼的建造
And when the towers fell,
当双塔倒塌时
it was pulverized to a microscopic size
其被粉碎成微观颗粒
and released into the air.
释放到空气中
The particles remained airborne for days
这些颗粒在空中悬浮了数天
and thousands of people unknowingly breathe them in.
成千上万的人在不知情下吸入了它们
They buried themselves deep within people's lungs,
它们深埋在人们的肺部
wreaking havoc and causing all sorts of diseases.
肆虐破坏 引发各种疾病
We've known for decades
我们几十年前就知道
that these particles are extremely dangerous,
这些颗粒极其危险
but when the towers fell, no one was warned.
但当双塔倒塌时 却无人收到警告
克里斯汀·惠特曼 美国环保署署长，2001年
The concentrations are such
其浓度水平
that they don't pose a health hazard,
不会构成健康危害
And yet today the diseases linked to that dust
然而今天 与这种粉尘相关的疾病
have killed more than twice as many people as the attacks themselves.
造成的死亡人数是袭击本身的两倍多
Once we started looking,
一旦我们开始调查
we kept finding this material in places we never expected.
就不断在出人意料之处发现这种材料
He was telling the newspapers,
他向报社透露
people aren't just eating it and breathing it.
人们不仅在吞食它、吸入它
They're mainlining it
还在静脉注射它
In popular off-roading spots
在热门的越野地点
in makeup, and even kids toys
在化妆品 甚至儿童玩具中
Say, it ain't so Mickey Mouse crayons.
想不到吧 米老鼠蜡笔也中招了
No...
不...
It's been detected in the dust around schools and homes.
在学校和住宅周围的灰尘中也检测到了它
Five generations of people died up there,
那里有五代人因此丧生
And instead of banning it outright, we let it spread.
我们非但没彻底禁用 反而任其蔓延
Some countries are still importing hundreds of thousands of tonnes each year,
一些国家每年仍进口数十万吨
and it's estimated that by 2035,
据估计 到 2035 年
nearly 2.8 million people might die because of it.
将有近 280 万人因此丧生
This is a video about a deadly miracle material we can't stop using.
本视频来揭露一种我们无法停止使用的致命神奇材料
This investigation is based on publicly available documents, recordings, and third party sources.
本调查基于公开文件、录音及第三方信源
All of our links are in the description.
所有链接详见简介
第一章：愿景
There is this story about the ancient Greeks from around the second century AD.
关于公元二世纪左右的古希腊人 有这样一个故事
They had this golden lantern that would burn for a whole year without going out,
他们有一盏金灯笼 可以燃烧一整年而不熄灭
all because of a very special wick that just wouldn't burn down.
全靠一种烧不坏的特殊灯芯
So how did they develop this technology?
他们是如何开发出这种技术的呢？
Well, the truth is they didn't.
其实并没有开发
They found it.
而是发现了它
Imagine you're walking around 2000 years ago
想象你两千年前走在路上
and you see this fluffy looking stuff poking out the ground.
看到这种绒毛状的东西从地里冒出来
It's got all of these fibers that you can pull apart and twist into shapes.
上面布满纤维 可以拽开拧成各种形状
肖恩·菲茨杰拉德 专业地质学家
First off, let's get a nice bundle.
首先 我们弄一捆好的
So it looks like cotton.
看起来像棉花
It looks like it would burn really well. Like it would just...
看起来很易燃 好像...
Yeah, you can start a fire with it. Right?
对 能用来生火 是吧？
- Alright. - Okay. Let's see what happens.
- 好 - 行 看看咋样
But it's not burning.
但它没烧
That's because this is actually a rock.
那是因为这就是块石头
It's a naturally occurring mineral.
是一种天然矿物
The core building block is simple.
核心结构很简单
It's a silicon atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms.
一个硅原子被四个氧原子包围
* 简化的玻尔模型
Now silicon has four electrons in its outer shell,
硅的外层有四个电子
but it really wants eight.
但它想要八个
So each of the oxygens shares one electron with it,
所以每个氧原子与它共享一个电子
but oxygen doesn't share evenly.
但氧原子并不均等共享
Since it's more electronegative than silicon,
因为氧的电负性强于硅
it pulls those shared electrons closer to itself.
它把共享电子拉得更靠近自己
This leaves the oxygen side slightly negative
这使得氧原子侧略带负电
*简化的结构模型。相对大小现在 表示四面体结构中的有效离子半径
and the silicon side slightly positive.
而硅原子侧略带正电
Now there's an electrostatic attraction between these atoms,
现在原子之间存在静电引力
which pulls the atoms closer together
将原子拉得更近
and strengthens this bond.
并加强了这个键
The result is an incredibly stable pyramid-shaped unit
最终形成极其稳定的金字塔形单元
called a silica tetrahedron.
称为硅氧四面体
But if you look at the oxygens in these corner spots,
但若观察这些顶点处的氧原子
they've only shared one electron,
它们只共享了一个电子
but they actually want two to complete their outer shells.
但实际上需要两个才能填满外层
So the corners link up with other silicon atoms
所以顶点与其他硅原子连接
*简化的结构模型。相对大小现在 表示四面体结构中的有效离子半径
to form more tetrahedra.
形成更多四面体
And in this way, the structure just keeps growing.
这样 结构就不断生长
左至右、上至下：组群硅酸盐、链状硅酸盐（单链）、链状硅酸盐（双链）、层状硅酸盐、环状硅酸盐、架状硅酸盐
The bonds inside here are incredibly strong and stable,
内部的键极其坚固稳定
and because the atoms are already tightly bound to the oxygens inside the silicate structure,
由于原子已与硅酸盐结构内的氧紧密结合
the oxygen in the air has nothing to react with,
空气中的氧无处反应
so the material doesn't burn.
所以材料不会燃烧
But overall, there's nothing special about these building blocks.
但总的来说 这些结构没什么特别的
More than 90% of the Earth's minerals are made from this stuff.
地球上 90% 以上的矿物都是由这类物质构成
Everything from quartz to clay.
从石英到粘土
What makes this material special is
这种材料的特殊性在于
how those units link up.
这些单元的连接方式
*示意图，未按比例绘制
Here, the tetrahedral have formed a sheet
这里 四面体形成了一层薄片
and bonded to it, there is actually a second sheet
并与之结合的 其实还有第二层
made of magnesium atoms and hydroxyl groups,
由镁原子和羟基组成
*简化示意图，平面外原子未显示
which are just an oxygen and a hydrogen stuck together.
羟基就是一个氧原子和一个氢原子
Now, the atomic spacings of these two layers are slightly different.
这两层的原子间距略有不同
So there's a tiny mismatch,
所以存在微小的错配
which causes tension between these layers
导致层间产生张力
causing them to curl up,
从而卷曲
and you end up with these tiny scroll like tubes.
最终形成这种卷轴状管
These tubes don't break down easily under heat.
这些管子受热不易分解
The structure stays stable up to around 600 degrees Celsius.
结构在约 600 摄氏度以下都能保持稳定
So like all these individual fibers that you see running through here,
所以像这里所有的单根纤维
those are all like these scrolls?
都是这种卷轴状的？
Yes.
是的
What is that? What was that bend?
那是啥？ 那个弯折的
That's, that's just a place where I twisted the fiber with my tweezers.
那只是我用镊子扭曲纤维的地方
Oh, okay.
哦 行
And when you twist these fibers, they actually don't break.
扭这些纤维时 它们其实不会断裂
So it's literally a rock you can weave.
可以说就是能被编织的石头
And when you do, the fibers form a tangled layered structure.
当你编织时 纤维形成纠缠的层状结构
So if heat is introduced,
如果引入热量
it has to pass from fiber to fiber across many contact points
它必须通过众多接触点跨纤维传递
with air filling the spaces between them.
纤维间隙则充满空气
This reduces how quickly heat can spread through the material.
这降低了热量在材料中传播的速度
Because of that, people started weaving it into things like
正因如此 人们开始把它织成
theater curtains and insulation blankets for steam engines,
剧院幕布、蒸汽机隔热毯
even fireproof clothing.
甚至防火服
Essentially, anywhere they didn't want something to catch fire.
基本上就是任何不希望着火的地方
But by far the most important use came around in the 1800s.
但目前其最重要的用途出现在 19 世纪
Between 1790 and 1870,
在 1790 到 1870 年间
the number of people living in urban areas in America
美国城市人口比例
jumped from one in twenty to around one in four.
从 5% 跃升至约 25%
So to accommodate this,
为适应这一变化
people had to tack on extra floors onto existing buildings
人们不得不在现有建筑上加盖楼层
and courtyards would then be filled with makeshift extensions,
庭院里也塞满了临时扩建部分
effectively tightly packing all of these buildings together.
使得所有建筑紧密相连
Pretty much all these buildings were made out of wood,
几乎所有这些建筑都是木制的
but the people inside still cooked with open flames.
但屋内的人仍用明火做饭
They used gas lamps, they lit candles.
用煤气灯 点蜡烛
So one accident and an entire neighborhood could go up in flames.
所以一次事故 整个街区都可能陷入火海
That reality hit New York City in December, 1835,
1835 年 12 月 纽约市就遭遇了这种情况
when within a span of just two days,
短短两天内
three separate fires erupted in Manhattan.
曼哈顿接连爆发三起火灾
One bystander described what followed as
一位目击者将其描述为
"an ocean of fire, with roaring, rolling, burning waves..."
“火海滔滔 狂浪咆哮 翻涌如潮 万物尽焦...”
By the end, a third of a mile of Manhattan was engulfed
最终 曼哈顿三分之一英里长的区域被吞噬
500 米
destroying nearly 700 buildings at a cost of $20 million.
近 700 栋建筑被毁 损失高达 2000 万美元
That's over $730 million of today's money.
相当于今天的 7.3 亿美元以上
Similar catastrophes were happening in cities all over the world.
类似的灾难在世界各地的城市上演
Chicago, London, Hamburg, Tokyo.
芝加哥 伦敦 汉堡 东京
When will this appalling rate of destruction come to an end?
这般骇人的破坏率何时才能结束？
The problem was that when a building burned,
问题在于 当建筑物燃烧时
it spewed up embers into the air.
会向空中喷出余烬
These then got carried by the wind
这些余烬随风飘荡
and landed onto other roofs,
落在其他屋顶上
setting them a light.
将其点燃
So, 23 years after the great fire of New York,
因此 在纽约大火 23 年后
a 21-year-old named Henry Ward Johns
一位名叫 亨利·沃德·约翰斯 的 21 岁年轻人
set out to break that chain reaction by making roofs fireproof.
决心打造防火屋顶来打破这种连锁反应
But that's trickier than it sounds.
但这说起来容易做起来难
Whatever his solution was, it had to be usable across an entire city.
无论采用何种方案 都必须适用整座城市
So cheap and easy enough to mass produce,
既要便宜易得 适合大规模生产
durable enough to sit exposed on rooftops
又要足够耐用 能暴露在屋顶上
baking in the summer sun, freezing in the winter.
经受夏日暴晒和冬日严寒
And most importantly, it was not allowed to ignite even when exposed to burning embers.
最重要的是 即使接触到燃烧的余烬 也不能被点燃
Now, Johns knew of a mineral that was already being spun into fireproof fabric,
约翰斯知道一种已经被纺成防火织物的矿物
but only the long fibers were useful for thread.
但只有长纤维才适合做线
The shorter ones were actually swept aside as waste.
短纤维常被当作废物扫在一边
Johns realized those scraps were exactly what he needed,
约翰斯意识到这些废料正是他需要的
fireproof tough and most importantly, cheap.
防火 坚韧 最重要的是便宜
So he set up a makeshift lab in his basement apartment
于是他在地下室公寓里建了一个临时实验室
and started experimenting.
开始实验
He heated up tar in his tea kettle,
他在茶壶里加热焦油
smeared that onto cloth,
涂在布上
and then pressed in these tiny fibers.
然后压入这些微小的纤维
Then he wringed the whole thing through his wife's brand-new clothes wringer.
然后他把整个东西放进妻子崭新的绞衣机里绞干
And when he tested it,
测试结果显示
it worked. It didn't burn.
它成功了 没有燃烧
In 1868, Henry Ward Johns patented his invention,
1868 年 亨利·沃德·约翰斯 为他的发明申请了专利
and by 1927,
到 1927 年
the company he built was generating $45 million in annual sales.
他建立的公司年销售额达到 4500 万美元
More than 800 million in today's money.
相当于今天的 8 亿多美元
Soon people were using this fire-resistant stuff in all kinds of building materials.
很快 人们开始在各种建筑材料中使用这种防火材料
Across America, Consumption grew from around 20,400 tons in 1900
在美国 消耗量从 1900 年的约 2.04 万吨
美国石棉消耗量，横轴年份，纵轴吨
to a peak of 803,000 tons in 1973.
增长到 1973 年的峰值 80.3 万吨
Because of that, pretty much every building in the us,
正因如此 美国几乎每一栋建筑
public or private, commercial or residential,
无论公共还是私人 商业还是住宅
used some form of this material.
都使用了某种形式的这种材料
During that same period,
在同一时期
stronger building codes, safer heating systems
更严格的建筑规范 更安全的供暖系统
and other fire-resistant materials were also introduced.
和其他防火材料也相继推出
And it showed during that time, fire-related deaths dropped around 80%.
数据显示 此期间火灾致死人数下降了约 80%
每十万人火灾相关死亡人数，横轴年份，纵轴人数
So this material likely helped save millions of lives worldwide.
所以这种材料很可能在全球范围内 挽救了数百万人的生命
Because it couldn't be destroyed by fire.
因为它能经受烈火考验
The name the ancient Greeks gave it, it stuck around.
古希腊人给它的名字流传了下来
They called it inextinguishable (ἄσβεστος)
他们称之为“不可熄灭的”
现代希腊语称之为 αμίαντος (Amiantos)，意为纯洁的、不被污染的
Or... asbestos
即 asbestos (石棉)
Asbestos, the remarkable mineral.
石棉 非凡的矿物
By the mid 20th century, asbestos was everywhere.
到 20 世纪中叶 石棉无处不在
Inside brake pads, toasters, ironing boards,
刹车片 烤面包机 熨衣板
hair dryers, surgical dressings, and blankets.
吹风机 外科敷料和保温毯里
You know, brewers filtered beer through it.
酿酒商曾用它过滤啤酒
One brand of toothpaste even used it for extra polish,
某牙膏品牌甚至用它来增强抛光效果
the fake snow in department store windows
百货公司橱窗里的假雪
and in movies like The Wizard of Oz.
以及《绿野仙踪》等电影中的假雪
All of that's asbestos too.
全都是石棉
"Unusual weather we're having, ain't it?".
“这天气真反常 不是吗？”
Sorry, Dorothy.
抱歉了 多萝茜
It was such a big deal, Marvel even had a villain called
其影响之大 漫威甚至有一个反派叫
Asbestos Lady.
“石棉女士”
She'd set a fire to escape the police,
她会放火逃避警察
and she'd easily walk through it safe inside her asbestos bodysuit.
然后身着石棉紧身衣 安然无恙地穿行火海
To feed this demand
为满足这种需求
Asbestos was pulled out of the ground on an enormous scale.
石棉被大规模开采
Major mining operations spread across Canada, Russia, and South Africa
主要的采矿作业遍布加拿大 俄罗斯和南非
with global production peaking at approximately 4.8 million tonnes per year in 1977.
全球产量在 1977 年达到峰值 约为每年 480 万吨
But the reason asbestos ended up in so many different products
但石棉之所以出现在这么多不同的产品中
is because it's actually a group of different minerals
是因为它实际上是一组不同的矿物
that white, fluffy stuff we tried to burn earlier.
我们之前试图燃烧的那种白色蓬松物质
It's called chrysotile,
叫温石棉
and it belongs to a mineral family known as the serpentines.
属于蛇纹石矿物家族
But other types of asbestos looked completely different.
但其他类型的石棉外观截然不同
For instance, there is also brown asbestos known as amosite.
例如还有褐石棉 又称铁石棉
It forms thick fibers that almost look like wood splinters.
它形成粗纤维 看起来几乎像木刺
Strong, stable, and highly heat-resistant.
坚固 稳定且高度耐热
So it was perfect for putting into building materials like cement panels.
所以它非常适合用于水泥板等建筑材料
This type belongs to a different mineral family.
这种类型属于另一个矿物家族
The Amphiboles.
角闪石
Here, instead of forming sheets,
在此 硅氧四面体不再形成薄片
the silica tetrahedra lock into rigid ladder like chains.
而是锁定成刚性的梯状链
*代表性化学组成，球体大小 表示结构中可占据空间，而非离子半径
In amosite, iron and magnesium ions,
在铁石棉中 铁离子和镁离子
along with hydroxyl groups embedded in the structure,
以及嵌入结构中的羟基
bind those chains together,
将这些链结合在一起
forming these long needle-like fibres.
形成这些长针状纤维
But tweak that chemistry just slightly
但稍微调整一下化学成分
*代表性化学组成，球体大小 表示结构中可占据空间，而非离子半径
so that now iron and sodium ions bind the chains
用铁离子和钠离子结合链条
and you get this: blue asbestos or crocidolite.
你就得到了蓝石棉 又称青石棉
These crystals split easily along their length
这些晶体很容易沿长度方向分裂
and they create these fine flexible fibers
形成细小柔韧的纤维
that are still extraordinarily strong
依然异常坚固
with tensile strengths comparable to high grade steel wire.
抗拉强度堪比高等级钢丝
This type went into chemical resistant insulation,
这种类型用于耐化学腐蚀的隔热材料
shipyards, and even filters inside early gas masks.
造船厂 甚至早期防毒面具内的过滤器
Oh, and there was another use
哦 还有一种用途
one that's hard to believe now
如今听来难以置信
In this magic box I have right here is
在我手边的这个神奇盒子里
something that was manufactured right here in North Carolina.
藏着在北卡罗来纳州本土制造的东西
There's cigarettes
香烟
produced in the 1950s,
生产于 1950 年代
and if you look at the filter,
仔细看滤嘴
you see the filters are blue asbestos.
你会发现是蓝石棉做的
This is Kent with a micronite filter
这是带有 Micronite 滤嘴的健牌香烟
that was manufactured with crocidolite asbestos in the filter itself.
滤嘴本身含有青石棉
So you're not only smoking, you were smoking it through a blue asbestos filter?
所以不止在抽烟 还在抽青石棉滤嘴？
Yes. What a deal.
没错 烟民有福了
Only Kent has the revolutionary new micronite filter you've heard so much about.
唯有健牌拥有你耳熟能详的革命性新 Micronite 滤嘴
Kent and only Kent filters best.
唯有健牌 滤嘴之神
第二章：掩蓋
In the early 1900s, a young woman named Nellie Kershaw
20 世纪初 一位名叫 内莉·克肖 的年轻女子
worked in a factory that spun asbestos fibers into threads.
在一家将石棉纤维纺成线的工厂工作
Every day. She breathed in the dust that those machines threw into the air.
日复一日 她吸入机器抛洒到空中的粉尘
So by her early thirties, she was so sick she could barely breathe.
三十岁出头时 她病得很重 几乎无法呼吸
And when she finally decided to ask the factory for help,
当她终于决定向工厂求助时
they refused.
他们拒绝了
They said helping out workers would set a dangerous precedent.
他们说帮助工人会开创一个危险的先例
Nellie died shortly after. At the age of just 33.
内莉不久后去世 年仅 33 岁
Nellie's case caught the attention of pathologist Dr. William Cooke.
内莉的病例引起了病理学家 威廉·库克 的注意
When he opened up her chest,
当他打开她的胸腔时
her lungs were gray and scarred, almost blue black,
她的肺呈灰色 布满瘢痕 近乎蓝黑色
like they had a huge internal bruise.
仿佛有巨大的内部瘀伤
And when his scalpel passed through them, they rasped.
手术刀划过时 发出砂响
It was like scraping against sandpaper.
就像划砂纸一样
The tissue was full of mineral grit,
组织里布满了矿物砂砾
and under the microscope the cause was unmistakable.
在显微镜下 病因昭然若揭
Asbesots fibers lodged into the lung tissue.
石棉纤维嵌入肺组织
If we were to inhale some type of an asbestos fiber,
若我们吸入某种石棉纤维
乔纳森·本尼恩，医师助理 人体解剖学研究所创始人
I kind of would think of them as like little microscopic straight arrows.
我倾向于把它们看作微小的直箭
They kind of just shoot down through the nose or the mouth
它们穿过鼻腔和口腔
and move down through the trachea.
顺着气管向下
If we continue on going down here,
继续向下
we get smaller and smaller as we penetrate deeper in the lung tissue.
进入越来越深的肺组织
And then you get into these alveolar sacs,
最终进入肺泡囊
these asbestos fibers, the lodge into the tissue there,
石棉纤维就会滞留在那里的组织中
and lung secretions, enzymes, even white blood cells,
肺部分泌物 酶 甚至白细胞
they have a really hard time breaking those down.
都很难分解它们
与石棉暴露相关的胸膜斑块
You end up with scarring deep inside the lungs.
最终导致肺部深处出现瘢痕组织
In 1924, Dr. Cooke published the first medical description of this condition,
1924 年 库克医生发表了首个关于该病症的医学描述
which became known as asbestosis.
后来被称为石棉肺
When these asbestos fibers lodge into the lungs,
当石棉纤维嵌入肺部时
the body treats them like invaders.
身体将其视为入侵者
Specialized cells called macrophages move in,
巨噬细胞这种特化细胞随即迁入
cells whose job it is to engulf and digest bacteria, dust or debris.
其职责是吞噬和消化细菌 灰尘或碎屑
But asbestos fibers are too long and stiff to swallow.
但石棉纤维太长太硬 无法吞噬
It's kind of like trying to eat a toothpick sideways.
就像试图横着吃牙签一样
The macrophages keep trying and failing,
巨噬细胞不断尝试却不断失败
and in the process, they release inflammatory chemicals
在此过程中 它们释放出炎症化学物质
that damage the surrounding lung tissue.
损害周围的肺组织
So workers breathing in asbestos dust day after day,
所以日复一日吸入石棉粉尘的工人
accumulated more and more damage.
损伤不断积累
When doctors sent by the British government examined hundreds of asbestos workers,
当英国政府派出的医生检查数百名石棉工人时
they found that more than 25% already showed signs of lung disease.
他们发现超过 25% 的人已经表现出肺部疾病的迹象
And for workers with over 20 years of exposure,
对于暴露超过 20 年的工人
that number was closer to 80%.
这个数字接近 80%
So in 1931, the government officially classified asbestos as a workplace hazard,
因此 在 1931 年 政府正式将石棉列为职业危害源
making it one of the first industrial materials to be regulated for health risks.
使其成为首批因健康风险受到监管的工业材料之一
But the new rules only covered factories where asbestos was manufactured.
但新规只覆盖了石棉生产工厂
They didn't extend to other workers like ship builders, miners or construction workers
并未延伸到造船工、矿工、建筑工等群体
who were regularly exposed to asbestos dust.
他们也经常接触石棉粉尘
Across the Atlantic, things weren't much better.
大西洋彼岸 情况也好不到哪去
There was no binding federal asbestos rules in the States.
美国没有具有约束力的联邦石棉法规
Only a recommendation.
只有建议性条款
The US Public Health Service suggested a temporary exposure limit
美国公共卫生局建议的临时暴露限值是
of 5 million asbestos particles for a single cubic foot of air,
每立方英尺空气 500 万个石棉颗粒
1.77 亿个/立方米
which meant that a worker breathing normally could inhale
这意味着正常呼吸的工人 每小时可能吸入
over 300 million asbestos particles an hour
超过 3 亿个石棉颗粒
and still be considered "within guidelines."
却仍被认为“符合标准”
This became especially problematic for shipyard workers when World War II broke out.
二战爆发后 这对造船厂工人尤其构成威胁
Ships were packed with asbestos insulation.
船只铺满了石棉隔热材料
So workers spent their days cutting and fitting asbestos in thick clouds of fibers.
工人们整天在厚厚的纤维烟雾中切割和安装石棉
And according to the guidelines of the day,
根据当时的标准
these levels met the official definition of safe working conditions.
这些浓度符合官方定义的安全工作条件
In fact, asbestos was still marketed as a magic material.
事实上 石棉仍被宣传为神奇材料
A few years earlier,
就在几年前
Time magazine actually put Johns Manville's president Louis H. Brown
《时代》杂志甚至将 佳斯迈威 的总裁 路易斯·H·布朗
JM，杰斯曼
on its April 3rd, 1939 cover.
登上了 1939 年 4 月 3 日的封面
But in the early 1960s,
但到了 1960 年代初
finally one doctor started connecting the dots on asbestos.
终于有位医生开始揭开石棉的真相
Dr. Irving Selikoff was running a small clinic in Patterson, New Jersey
欧文·塞利科夫 医生在新泽西州帕特森经营一家小诊所
when the local asbestos workers union asked if their members could come and see him.
当地石棉工人工会询问其成员能否前来就诊
Before long, he'd seen multiple workers
不久后 他就接诊了多名工人
with either severe lung scarring
要么有严重的肺部瘢痕
or more concerningly, an extremely rare cancer called mesothelioma.
要么更严重 患有一种极其罕见的癌症 称为间皮瘤
meso-theli-oma
But mesothelioma is strongly associated with asbestos exposure
间皮瘤与石棉接触密切相关
and is cancer of those cells lining the inside of the chest cavity.
是胸腔内壁细胞的癌症
And most commonly, it's this pleural cavity.
最常见的是胸膜腔
These pleural membranes are lined with mesothelial cells.
这些胸膜由间皮细胞排列
Sometimes what happens is the fibers will work their way out of the lung tissue
有时纤维会从肺组织中穿出
and directly get into this cavity here,
直接侵入这个腔体
and they can literally pierce out the lung.
甚至直接刺穿肺组织
间皮瘤肿瘤
They cause constant irritation.
它们会持续引发刺激
And over time, that can trigger cancerous changes in the cells that make up those linings.
随着时间推移 可能诱发这些内衬的细胞发生癌变
Selikoff needed more data to understand the scale of the problem,
塞利科夫需要更多数据来了解问题的严重程度
but factory owners refused to share medical records from their workers with him.
但工厂主拒绝向他提供工人的医疗记录
So Selikoff had to get creative.
所以塞利科夫必须另辟蹊径
See, during World War II, many shipyard workers employed by the Navy
二战期间 许多受雇于海军的造船厂工人
underwent federal background checks.
都接受了联邦背景调查
Thousands of these men had been working with asbestos to insulate ships.
数千名工人曾接触石棉为船只做隔热
So using surviving FBI wartime personnel records,
利用存世的 FBI 战时人事档案
Selikoff began tracking them down
塞利科夫开始追踪他们
and one by one painstakingly pieced together their medical histories.
并逐一拼凑出他们的医疗史
What emerged wasn't a handful of isolated tragedies.
浮现出来的不是少数孤立的悲剧
It was a pattern.
而是一种规律
That exposure proved deadlier than combat itself.
这种接触比战斗本身更致命
8.6 out of every thousand servicemen were killed in action,
每 1000 名军人中有 8.6 人阵亡
whereas 14 out of every thousand shipyard workers later died from asbestos-related cancers.
而每 1000 名造船厂工人中 有 14 人后来死于石棉相关癌症
Selikoff launched a formal investigation into hundreds of asbestos insulation workers,
塞利科夫对数百名石棉隔热工人展开了正式调查
and what he found confirmed his fears.
他的发现证实了他的担忧
Widespread disabling asbestosis,
广泛的致残性石棉肺
dozens of cases of mesothelioma
数十例间皮瘤
高亮内容：（调查总人数 623，时间范围 1943-1962）
肺癌死亡：预期 6.0，实际 42 食管癌、胃癌、结直肠癌死亡：预期 9.7，实际 29 石棉肺死亡：预期(无)，实际 12
(预期死亡人数基于公布的同期同龄美国白人平均数据)
lung cancer rates roughly seven times higher than expected,
肺癌发病率大约是预期的七倍
and a threefold increase in gastrointestinal cancers.
胃肠道癌症增加了三倍
In 1964, he organized a conference at the New York Academy of Sciences
1964 年 他在纽约科学院组织了一次会议
where for the first time, all this evidence was presented publicly in one place, and on the record.
所有证据首次在公开场合聚集 并记录在案
It marked the moment when asbestos stopped being seen as a modern miracle material
这一刻标志着石棉不再被视为现代奇迹材料
and instead started being recognized as a public health crisis.
转而被认定为公共卫生危机的转折点
But the asbestos industry fought back
但石棉行业发起了反击
trying to discredit Selikoff.
试图诋毁塞利科夫
Industry funded research groups came out with papers minimizing the risk of exposure
行业资助的研究团体发表论文 淡化接触风险
and framing Selikoff's findings as overblown.
并指责塞利科夫的研究言过其实
They started a coordinated PR effort to discredit him,
他们发起协调一致的公关攻势诋毁其学术声誉
trying to call him alarmist,
指责其危言耸听
and starting a rumor that he wasn't even a real doctor
甚至散布谣言说他不是真正的医生
just because he got his medical degree out in Scotland.
仅仅因为他的医学学位是在苏格兰获得的
But Selikoff kept going.
但塞利科夫从未停歇
He kept publishing data on the devastating health effects of asbestos exposure.
他继续发布石棉接触对健康造成毁灭性影响的数据
He worked 18-hour days
他每天工作 18 小时
documenting every patient who wrote to him.
记录每一位写信求助的患者
He contacted policymakers, even world leaders,
他联系政策制定者 甚至世界领导人
urging them to take action against asbestos
敦促他们对石棉采取行动
巴里·卡斯尔曼 《石棉：医学和法律视角》作者
Now, Selikoff, the legendary doctor who organized this conference in the 1970s
塞利科夫 这位在 70 年代组织这次会议的传奇医生
found that intravenous drugs were being contaminated by asbestos filtration.
发现静脉注射药物正遭受石棉过滤污染
People aren't just eating it and breathing it.
人们不仅在吞食它、吸入它
They're mainlining it.
还在静脉注射它
By the 1970s, no one could deny it any longer.
到 1970 年代 再无人能否认
Miners, factory workers, shipyard insulators,
矿工 工厂工人 船厂隔热工
people who'd been exposed decades earlier during the asbestos boom,
几十年前在石棉繁荣时期接触过的人
were now turning up with multiple cancers in huge numbers.
现在正大量患上多种癌症
Asbestos exposure is linked to all sorts of different cancers.
石棉接触与多种癌症相关
The lung tissue has lymphatic vessels in it.
肺组织中有淋巴管
人体淋巴腺的分布
You have them throughout your whole body.
它们遍布全身
The asbestos fiber sometimes on their own can migrate into the lymphatic vessels.
石棉纤维有时会自行迁移到淋巴管中
Sometimes the white blood cells will take it into the lymphatic system.
有时白细胞会将其带入淋巴系统
Once you hit the lymphatic system,
一旦进入淋巴系统
you have the potential to go anywhere in the human body.
就有可能扩散至人体任何部位
Autopsies have found fibers in nearly every organ in the body.
尸检发现纤维几乎存在于人体所有器官
The brain, bone marrow,
大脑 骨髓
spleen, intestines, pancreas,
脾脏 肠道 胰腺
prostate, ovaries, thyroid, and liver.
前列腺 卵巢 甲状腺和肝脏
And in every tissue, those fibers reach,
每当这些纤维触及任何组织
they set off the same chain reaction.
它们都会引发同样的连锁反应
I'm imagining these white blood cells with personalities,
我想象这些白细胞都有个性
and they get all mad and frustrated
它们变得愤怒沮丧
because they can't engulf this asbestos fiber.
因为没法吞噬石棉纤维
They've coined this term called essentially:
它们创造了一个术语
frustrated phagocytosis.
受挫吞噬作用
直译：沮丧吞噬作用
They start releasing these things like reactive oxygen species.
细胞开始释放活性氧等物质
They can cause damage to surrounding cells,
这会对周围细胞造成损害
and really important is damage to DNA.
最重要的是 DNA 损伤
间皮瘤细胞
Those cells can start dividing out of control when they start to clump together,
当这些细胞开始聚集时 便可能会失控分裂
and we start to call those clumps of cells cancer
我们便称这些细胞团为癌细胞
US courts were flooded with lawsuits against companies like Johns Manville.
美国法院充斥着针对佳斯迈威等公司的诉讼
The harm asbestos caused was well documented.
石棉造成的危害已被充分记录
The information was out there.
相关信息早已公开
Companies should have known their products were dangerous.
公司本应知晓其产品具有危险性
They should know what's reasonably available in the public domain about the dangers of asbestos.
他们理应知晓公共领域中关于石棉危害的可获取信息
If they can read asbestos patents,
既然能读懂石棉专利文件
they can read asbestos pathology papers,
就该能读懂石棉病理学论文
But the companies denied it.
但公司予以否认
What was needed was definitive evidence
关键在于需要确凿证据
that the companies knew their products were killing their workers.
证明公司明知其产品正在毒害工人
Then an attorney, Karl Asch,
随后 律师 卡尔·阿什
noticed something strange in the 1974 report
在大型石棉公司 雷贝斯托-曼哈顿
by this huge asbestos company called Raybestos-Manhattan.
1974 年报告中 发现了蹊跷
See, in this report, the company suggested
在这份报告中 公司声称
早在1930年，雷贝斯托-曼哈顿公司就委托 大都会人寿保险公司对其所有工厂进行调查， 并提出消除潜在健康危害的建议。
that they had actually been investigating health hazards of asbestos since the 1930s.
他们自 1930 年代就开始调查石棉的健康危害
So Asch started digging.
于是阿什开始挖掘
He filed a request for internal documents,
他提交了内部文件调阅申请
and at first, the company claimed it couldn't find much.
起初 公司声称找不到多少文件
Then unexpectedly Asch was handed a banker's box stuffed full of documents
随后 阿什意外收到了一个装满文件的银行档案盒
meticulously kept by Raybestos-Manhattan's, former president Sumner Simpson.
这些文件由 雷贝斯托-曼哈顿 前总裁 萨姆纳·辛普森 精心保存
Back in 1935, a journal contacted Simpson
1935 年 一家期刊联系了辛普森
because they wanted to write an article about asbestosis.
希望撰写关于石棉肺的专题文章
Shortly after, Simpson himself reached out to Johns Manville's lawyer, Vandiver Brown, saying,
不久后 辛普森亲自联系了佳斯迈威的律师 范迪弗·布朗 说
"I think the less said about asbestos, the better off we are,"
“关于石棉的话题 少说为妙”
To which Brown replied...
布朗回复道...
"I quite agree with you that our interests are the best served by having asbestosis receive the minimum of publicity."
“完全同意 让石棉肺的关注最小化 符合我们的利益”
The same papers also revealed that in the 1930s,
同一批文件还揭露 在 1930 年代
Raybestos and Johns Manville hired an external company,
雷贝斯托 和 佳斯迈威 曾聘请外部机构
Saranac Laboratories, to do studies of asbestos on animals.
萨拉纳克实验室 对石棉进行动物实验
我和布朗先生的想法是，让四五家（能找到更多也行）石棉生产商接手这项研究， 每年支付等额费用，持续三年。研究结果出炉后，我们可随时决定是否公开发表。 我个人认为，只要内容合适，且不会损害我们公司利益，就应将其分享给医学界。
But the companies insisted on controlling
但公司坚持控制
what from those studies will be made public.
哪些研究结果可以公开
As a letter from Vandiver points out,
正如范迪弗的一封信所指出的
"It is our further understanding that the results obtained
“我们进一步理解到 获得的研究结果
will be considered the property of those who are advancing the required funds,
将被视为提供资金者的财产
who will determine whether, to what extent and in what manner they shall be made public."
由其决定是否公开、以何种程度以何种方式公开”
A clause to which Saranac Laboratories said yes.
萨拉纳克实验室同意了这一条款
But after their lead researcher who was compiling all this evidence died in 1946.
但负责整合所有证据的首席研究员于 1946 年去世后
The companies agreed that nothing should be published that contained any objectionable material.
两家公司达成共识 不得公布任何包含不利内容的材料
Objectionable meaning any sort of indication that asbestos causes cancer.
所谓的“不利” 就是任何暗示石棉致癌的迹象
So when Saranac laboratories finished their research,
所以当萨拉纳克实验室完成研究后
the companies took the report, edited it,
公司拿走报告 进行删改
and just buried the evidence.
掩埋了证据
Here's an original copy of that manuscript,
这是那份手稿的副本
and you can find whole sections just crossed out.
能看到整段整段被划掉了
Other documents were even more damning.
其他文件甚至更确凿
“威尔伯·L·拉夫，一位退休的佳斯迈威公司高管， 曾担任该公司位于加州匹兹堡和新泽西州曼维尔工厂的主管。 他作证称，直到1972年，该公司一直奉行一项政策： 当工人的胸部X光片显示异常时，不告知工人这一情况。”
A Johns Manville medical official later testified that
佳斯迈威的一位医疗官员后来作证说
up until 1971, the company had a policy of
直到 1971 年 公司仍奉行一项政策
“佳斯迈威公司的政策是不采取任何行动，也不向员工透露X光检查结果。”
not telling their workers if their physicals showed signs of asbestosis or asbestos related lung cancers.
即使体检显示工人有石棉肺或石棉相关肺癌迹象 也绝不告知
And in sworn testimony,
在宣誓证词中
a witness recalled a meeting they had in the early 1940s
一位证人回忆起 1940 年代初的一次会议
with the president of Johns Manville
与佳斯迈威总裁的会面
asking why they weren't warning workers about asbestos.
质问为何不向工人警示石棉危害
As the witness recalls it, they asked,
据证人回忆 其问道
"Do you mean to tell me you would let them work until they drop dead?"
“你是说你要让他们干到死吗？”
To which the president replied,
总裁回答说
"Yes, we save a lot of money that way."
“是的 那样能省一大笔钱”
Once the Sumner Simpson papers got out,
萨姆纳·辛普森文件一经曝光
they unlocked a new industrial Watergate.
便揭开了堪比‘水门事件’的工业界丑闻
The industry's standard, "oh, we didn't know" defense.
行业标准的 “哦 我们不知情” 辩护
It simply fell apart.
彻底不攻自破
Comparisons were made to big tobacco's concealment of smoking risks,
人们将其与烟草巨头隐瞒吸烟危害相提并论
and the lawsuits surged.
诉讼随之激增
Each case brought new discovery
每起诉讼都带来新发现
and each round of discovery exposed a wider, more coordinated coverup.
而每轮调查都揭露更广泛、更系统性的掩盖行为
Ever since the word asbestosis started showing up in medical journals in the 1920s,
自 1920 年代医学期刊首次出现‘石棉肺’一词以来
Johns Manville went out to secure the market around itself.
佳斯迈威便着手巩固自身市场地位
First, they acquired the biggest rockwool company.
首先 他们收购了最大的岩棉公司
Then they acquired a firm holding the key patents to calcium silicate insulation.
随后收购了一家持有硅酸钙隔热材料关键专利的公司
Insulation that could be made without asbestos.
一种无需石棉即可制造的隔热材料
Now, at the same time, companies that had non asbestos insulation
与此同时 生产非石棉隔热材料的公司
were incentivized into creating asbestos product lines.
被诱导搭建石棉产品线
With each acquisition or inducement,
随着每次收购或诱导
another potential competitor lost the ability to denounce asbestos
又一家潜在竞争对手丧失了谴责石棉的能力
and say, oh, we have an asbestos free product.
并宣称 “哦 我们有无石棉产品”
So each in turn became a member of this conspiracy of silence.
就这样 各家企业相继加入这场沉默共谋
That is how the asbestos industry guaranteed its survival
这就是石棉行业保证其生存的方式
by ensuring no one could speak out against it.
即确保没人能站出来反对它
We suggest you consider asbestos
我们建议您考虑使用石棉
for the walls of your home.
作为您家的墙壁材料
Their business decisions
他们的商业决策
and the people who make them are businessmen.
做出决策的都是商人
I mean, the word morality or moral obligation
可以说 良知和道德义务
is almost nonexistent in the corporate documents.
在这些公司文件中几乎不存在
In 1982, Johns Manville filed for bankruptcy protection.
1982 年 佳斯迈威申请破产保护
Manville Corporations board of directors has determined
佳斯迈威公司董事会已决定
*Johns Manville 在前一年（1981年）更名为 Manville，此处还是译为佳斯迈威
that the corporation should file for reorganization under chapter 11 of the Bankruptcy Act.
公司应根据破产法第 11 章申请重组
“激进手段：佳斯迈威公司申请破产保护，直指高昂石棉诉讼案”
Not because they were broke,
并非资金链断裂
but in a move widely seen as a way to shield the company from a flood of asbestos lawsuits.
而是被广泛视为一种规避大量石棉诉讼的手段
“激进手段”、“佳斯迈威公司申请破产保护，最担心的是诉讼，而非债务” “破产申请冻结石棉诉讼，或促使政府出手相助”、“他们要一份救助法案”
“尽管业务强劲，诉讼迫使佳斯迈威申请重组”
Despite all the evidence against them,
尽管证据确凿
Johns Manville survived.
佳斯迈威依然存续
They continue operating to this day,
该公司至今仍在运营
although they no longer produce asbestos.
尽管不再生产石棉
JM 公司历经美国内战、两次世界大战、大萧条等艰难时期 仍得以生存并蓬勃发展，尤其在“奇迹矿物”石棉的兴衰历程中展现出非凡韧性。
Between 1940 and 1980,
1940 至 1980 年间
the asbestos industry led by Johns Manville
以佳斯迈威为首的石棉行业
exposed roughly 21 million Americans to these fibers.
使约 2100 万美国人接触了石棉纤维
Asbestos related deaths amounted to at least 8,000 to 10,000 people every year
每年石棉相关的死亡人数 至少有 8000 到 10000 人
with many more suffering lifelong disease.
还有更多人罹患终身疾病
In 1989, the EPA issued a rule
1989 年 美国环保署颁布法规
to phase out almost all asbestos use in the United States.
逐步淘汰美国几乎所有石棉用途
And that should have been the end of the story.
这本该是故事的结局
But the industry sued immediately,
但该行业立即提起诉讼
not because anyone disputed asbestos causes cancer.
并非因为有人质疑‘石棉致癌’
That was undeniable by this point.
这在当时已是无可辩驳的
But because of a legal technicality,
而是基于法律上的技术细节
see, under the law,
根据法律
the EPA had to prove that an outright ban of asbestos was the only solution,
环保署必须证明“全面禁止石棉是唯一解决方案”
and that anything less than that just wouldn't cut it.
任何次于此的措施都不起作用
This was an almost impossible feat.
这几乎是不可能完成的任务
Now, the industry argued that they hadn't done that,
行业方辩称环保署未能履行该义务
and unfortunately the US courts agreed.
不幸的是 美国法院认同这一观点
So in 1991, they ruled that
所以在 1991 年 法院裁定
the EPA just hadn't met this narrow legal standard.
环保署未能达到这个狭义的法律标准
因此，本院准予复审申请，撤销环保署拟定的法规。
And with that, the asbestos ban was dead in the water.
石棉禁令因此流产
But by then, asbestos had become so financially and legally risky
但到那时 石棉对于生产或使用它的公司来说
for the companies that manufactured it or used it,
有着极高的经济和法律风险
that its overall use did actually decline.
导致其总体使用量确实有所下降
Yet in the end, after years of trying to define and regulate asbestos,
然而历经多年对石棉的定义和监管努力
the only thing that truly stuck around was a definition and a narrow one
唯一真正留存下来的 只是一个狭义的定义
石棉
蛇纹石石棉
温石棉 （白石棉）
角闪石石棉
Chrysotile and five amphiboles,
温石棉和五种角闪石石棉
铁石棉 （褐石棉）
because these were the only ones being mined, sold and used in factories.
因为只有这些在工厂里被开采、销售和使用
透闪石棉
阳起石棉
直闪石棉
青石棉 （蓝石棉）
Those six became the official asbestos minerals
这六种成了官方定义的石棉矿物
and anything else, no matter how fiber like or potentially dangerous,
其他任何东西 无论多么像纤维或多么有潜在危险
well, that doesn't count.
都不算数
第三章：後果
The FDA for the first time in 50 years,
FDA 五十年来首次
美国食品药品监督管理局
considering testing for asbestos in cosmetics and talc powder
考虑对化妆品和滑石粉进行石棉检测
traces of it have now been detected in children's play sand.
儿童玩具沙中检测到了石棉痕迹
Thousands of people are claiming
数千人声称
that they developed various forms of cancer
因多年使用强生婴儿爽身粉
after years of using Johnson & Johnson's baby powder
患上了各种形式的癌症
Is this all the stuff that you've you've collected over the years?
这些都是你多年来收集的东西吗？
No, it's not all of it,
不 这不是全部
but this box is full of all the
但这个盒子里装的都是
Claire's labeled products that I found asbestos in.
我发现含有石棉的 Claire's 品牌产品
Everything little girls could possibly want to have their makeup in.
小女孩们想用来化妆的东西
Like, oh, I don't know. How about sparkly boxes, right? - Yeah.
比如 这个闪粉盒
- And there's a cell phone. - Yes.
还有手机壳
- Right, with eyeshadows on it. - Yeah,
上面有眼影
Right. There's asbestos in there.
这里面有石棉
There's asbestos in the unicorn.
这个独角兽里也有石棉
All of that?
全都有？
- Yes, all of these have asbestos in them. - Oh my god
- 是的 这里面的都有石棉 - 天哪
I started seeing asbestos fibers everywhere.
我开始到处看到石棉纤维
Everywhere. Okay.
到处都是 行
The, the eyeshadows, the blush,
眼影 腮红
they all had asbestos fibers. Alright.
它们都有石棉纤维
Wow. Okay.
哇
What year was this?
这是哪年的？
19... uh... 2017
19... 呃... 2017
What?
蛤？
2017
I thought it was gonna be like 1980 or something.
我以为会是 1980 年之类的
What? 2017?
啥？2017？
- Yes. - Whoa.
- 是的 - 哇
And the manufacturer came back, said, there's no way.
制造商回应说 不可能
And they sponsored another laboratory
他们赞助了另一个实验室
to look at the same samples.
来检测相同的样品
And they said, no, none of this counts as asbestos.
他们说 不 这些都不算石棉
It's all cleavage fragments for sepiolite
这都是海泡石的解理碎片
clay or something like that.
或者粘土之类的
And it was balderdash, right?
简直胡说八道 对吧？
I called friends all across the states
我打电话给全美各地的朋友
and said, Hey, do you have a Claire's store near you?
问 “嘿 你们附近有 Claire's 店吗？”
Can you find the sparkly box, right?
能找到那个闪粉盒
and send it to me, pronto?
然后寄给我吗 越快越好
There's Claire's all in, all of the malls, all across America.
全美所有商场里都有 Claire's
And then I look further and it's all over the world.
后来我再查 全世界都有
I mean, every mall, everywhere.
每个商场 每个角落
And I end up testing Claire's from Brazil to Japan to London.
我最终测试了巴西、日本、伦敦的 Claire's 产品
I found asbestos,
都有石棉
No way
不是吧
Right? So that turned into a huge story, right?
对吧？这就是个大新闻了
And now I don't think you can buy very much Talc based cosmetics at Claire's now,
我觉得现在 Claire's 基本买不到含滑石粉的化妆品了
FDA 宣布在 Claire's 产品中发现石棉
继美国石棉警报后，Claire's 下架三款化妆品
Claire's 公司宣布自愿召回三款化妆品
你孩子的化妆品里有什么？石棉召回事件引发监管质疑
所有样本的透闪石石棉检测结果均为阳性
but it was a several years long battle.
但这是一场持续数年的斗争
2017年，Claire's 对独立机构的石棉检测结果提出异议。 2019年，在 FDA 检测发现某些产品受到污染后，该公司发布了自愿召回声明， 称此举是“出于高度谨慎”，随后逐步转向生产不含滑石粉的产品。
These are different products that were sold at toy stores.
这些是在玩具店出售的不同产品
Like here's the secret spy kit. - Yeah.
比如这个秘密特工套件
And you see there's a fingerprint kit there. Right?
你看这里面还有指纹采集工具 对吧？
And in that fingerprint kit was a powder
在那个指纹套件里有一种粉末
in which I found asbestos fibers.
我在里面发现了石棉纤维
Say, it ain't so Mickey Mouse crayons.
想不到吧 米老鼠蜡笔也中招了
Noooo.
不...
I found asbestos in those.
我在里面发现了石棉