glute muscle forged metal combine these two elemental forces and you've got
civilization itself the very structure of are constructed world is what from
these basic elements the cadence of our progress is in the measured ringing of
the blacksmith's hammer
are soaring skyscrapers are sturdy bridges and expensive ocean liners
our jet planes and rockets you can't escape the power and necessity of metal
it is the natural material that we have reshaped into our grandest man-made
structures we have come to a point in history when metal is really infiltrated
every aspect of our life very difficult to avoid simple fact that it probably is
the primary material that we use to extend ourselves
metals have characteristics that are ideal for nearly everything that makes
the modern world modern
some conduct heat or electricity
others are easily stretched into wire some resist cracking and breaking many
are shiny or exhibit enormous strength when joined with other elements and many
of them can be worked in shape
metal is a very resistant material material that i have to control fight
come to compromises with in order to manipulate to bend it to my will to make
what I want to make with it
middles are everywhere not just in the obviously metallic steel pillars and
aluminum cans
calcium in our teeth and bones and silicon and glass are both metals when
they are in their pure elemental state medals make up two-thirds of all the
known elements an element is made up of protons neutrons and electrons forming
an atom
it cannot be reduced into other substances
all elements are cataloged in the periodic table which lists each element
in an ascending scale based on its atomic number or number of protons and
electrons making up its atoms and so they go in rows across the periodic
table and the last column of the periodic table are called the noble
elements and those are very stable and so all the other ones kinda want to be
like those and they can do that by giving up an electron or more electrons
are are losing electrons one definition of metals is that they are elements
group mostly on the unstable side of the periodic table
they are likely to give up an electron in order to bond with other elements
the key to metals is this ability to bond with other elements and compounds
to form substances called alloys with completely new and unique properties
iron for instance becomes ferrous oxide or rust
when it bonds with oxygen in the air because I see is present in the
environment we do not find most metals in their metallic former in a pure form
in a metallic state we find him an oxide form they're bonded or linked with
oxygen metals alloy with lots of other elements besides oxygen in fact alloys
often exhibit properties that make them more than just the sum of their
elemental parts
a lot of people will talk about steel there are lots of types of steel
there's iron and steel with there are the things in there as well and if you
change that composition you will change the properties
our ancestors defining a metal was easier
they knew that the shiny rocks that were often clustered in specific areas or
sometimes found on the ground were often stronger than the flinty ones and they
bent rather than broke when founded
hmm
according to archaeologists toward the end of the Stone Age more than 6,500
years ago the first metal to undergo human manipulation was likely copper
which could be found in deposits throughout the world sometimes loosely
embedded in the soil or in outcroppings copper is available in nature in what's
called a native state which is an unalloyed state it will combine with
chemicals into from its surroundings to turn a bright blue or to return a bright
green which made it easily identified and when in this native state could be
hammered into objects relatively easily
they probably started to use and and integrate into the lives and it was
through the fact that with weighty head head weight may be made them want to use
it as an implement of some type and soon they learn to it with the presence of
heat it was more malleable and they could form it into shapes and I think
things just evolved from their proper was originally mind with bones and rocks
to pry out the metal or
and/or is an amalgam of rock and metal
they were then able to begin to dig into the ground and follow those veins of ore
and eventually man build fires against the rock and then douse them with cold
water in order to break the rock and extract the copper from the broken
pieces of or were gathered up and smelted or heated to the metals melting
temperature usually in a heat-resistant ceramic container
in the case of copper which melts at a relatively low 1981 degrees Fahrenheit
that process wasn't too difficult today coppersmiths follow roughly the same
procedure for doing for pouring it
we have most here that have been carbon part have carbon on them
traditionally they would have used well-oiled birth that to create carbon
on the molds to release the metal ones its molten import into the most
themselves
smelting enabled us to shape copper into both tools and decorations
I'm looking for this nice
hello I'm going to brush it off to make sure that I don't have any scale or dirt
on there
and now we're going to come over and I'm gonna have them start
such as
yeah
so we're trying to get a consistent thickness through the whole billet
to make
what
repeated a hammer and flattens and pardons copper by compressing the copper
atoms into a tighter configuration
above all it was forging the ability to hammer it when copper is hammered it
becomes work hard and work hard and makes it stiffer more brittle
it can then be hammered further into tools or decorative pieces like this
Copperhead its limitations it's soft and can't hold a sharp edge but with the
introduction of other metals came stronger copper alloys
no more than nine percent in could be added to the melted copper to produce
the alloy bronze which was harder than copper and more easily worked
how's discovered will always be a mystery i think it's just naturally that
two materials got mixed together
perhaps a lot lost in a fire at the next day they cleaned out the fire pit and
there was something that was once a copper object and that was something
different
early civilizations in both China and the Middle East with the first to forge
bronze
as the technology traveled along trade routes it radiated out from those areas
as early as seven thousand years ago the usefulness of bronze particularly for
weapons such as swords and axes prompted historians to refer to this first stage
of our large-scale use of metals as the Bronze Age it had such a significant
impact on the the quality of life for humans at that time and it just improve
their ability to survive
it was an insurance policy in a lot of ways that gave them an extension of
their will
today copper and bronze are still used for decoration and jewelry
because copper is ductile can be made into wire
and conductive it is ideal for electrical wiring the strength of bronze
makes it perfect for bearings opinions washers and other important machine
parts
but the age when bronze dominated forge metals ended when a better more
political elements supplanted that middle was iron
iron the material that supports our civilization its age began approximately
2,500 years ago throughout Europe Asia and Africa
a period in which it superseded the alloy bronze requiring copper and
especially Tim which were not always found in proximity to each other
prove difficult as their value increased at that point people have become quite
reliant on bronze as a material to improve their lives and so when this was
interrupted and they couldn't get the valuable tend to make the bronze they
turn to iron
although iron was softer than bronze
it was more plentiful the fourth most abundant element on earth in early
source of iron was extraterrestrial meteorites that have penetrated Earth's
atmosphere giving the metal is supernatural Laura
early man must have observed the meteors in the sky found the middle on the
ground and put two and two together
the Egyptians had a word bond at pet which meant iron from heaven and the
Syrians the Hebrews and so forth all had words in the vocabulary that describe
that
iron was so important to human progress and it would become the most important
structural metal for roughly two millennia
and then work iron in the blacksmith's shop a place to fiery and almost
mystical transformation were seemingly useless rocks become vital tools
the fact that they use fire and they were control of fire
probably brought them to religious status and a lot of ways
that tradition survives today at specialized shops and educational
programs like southern illinois university's metalsmithing program some
of the equipment is modern methods and materials go back thousands of years i
have iron ore in this pile and in this rock form and I have limestone right
here and it's basically just rode gravel like you would find on a gravel road in
most parts of the country
we're going to crush the iron ore up as you see and that then we'll be putting
the crystal
and crushing very simple process
this gets loaded into our personal
and the limestone this will melt them at a lower temperature than the iron will
and it will cover it and control oxidation so that we reduce the
materials down to small nodules
limestone is called a flux a substance that acts like a sealant protecting the
metal from oxidation when it melts the heat resistant ceramic crucible is then
placed in France
gas oven speed the process that in antiquity would have taken about 12
hours
in less than 2 the material at roughly twenty-seven hundred degrees Fahrenheit
bubbles out of the crucible as it forms a bloom
yeah
as the mixture is poured out the flux separates from the hot spongy iron
then we will take that spongy mass and hammered into a recognizable shape that
we see iron in a lot of times and this represents that
but this is only midpoint of the metals transformation
the next step for the ancient blacksmiths would have been to make
these wrought iron faces into something useful
using traditional and ancient tools
the mellows to increase the flow of oxygen raising the temperature of the
fire the anvil the surface on which to place the metal and the hammer with
which to found it that this is what's called a billet
it's just separate pieces of iron that will be back together and in the fire
will be fused together by called forge welding when it's lightly tapped the
molecules start to mesh between the tube
and then as you forge a little longer a little longer
it becomes one piece instead of multiple pieces
if the right temperature is reached characterized by an even yellow glow
the bullet will more easily fuse together with Hamrick
that we get overzealous they can easily split apart
this oxide is just a scale that's for me the high temperatures
so by brushing it
I get a cleaner surface once the surface is brushed the Smith sprinkles the
billet with borax the borax also acts as a flux forming a glassy sealant on the
hot iron billet and preventing more oxidation hammering slowly shape the
metal in this case into an accent
this tool is called it drip drip just basically opens up a whole and turns it
into whatever shape the drift is ok so by driving this
in here it's gradually spreading it out and shaping the size of the hole
a few more hits and it's done from crushed stone
- useful tool within the seemingly supernatural realm of the blacksmith
other metals were valued for precisely the opposite reason that iron wise gold
is one of the rarest elements and least utilitarian because of its softness but
it's yellow luster has captivated all cultures that have encountered it
the son Terry
it was sort of a firm ative material it was an optimistic material the most
important gods were either
we are made of gold or covered with cold to assemble their superiority to lesser
gods
Gold doesn't oxidize or tarnish readily is malleable and melts at a relatively
low temperature in other words it's perfect as a decoration and for coinage
in fact gold was the perfect foundation for monetary systems throughout the
world
it was a symbol of strength of wealth of political power it has this sort of
mystique about it as being a symbol of of success
like copper gold was first discovered in its native state shining from surface
deposits or in rich veins
the Egyptians in in Nubia which witch is which a rich gold area which is now part
of sedan were the first ones to develop significant ability to do underground
tunnel mining and they would dig up entire rooms and create ventilation
systems and and use primitive methods to bring the or up
the search for gold spurred colonization of the new world in the 16th century
particularly among the Spanish conquistadors in the Americas
although they never found the fabled el dorado or lost city of gold
they managed to find and steal enough to make spain for the time the most wealthy
of the European powers as explorers set out across the oceans in search of gold
early European metallurgists struggled to find a way to magically created it
might have heard of the alchemists back in the older days there was this field
of science for people wanted to turn everything into gold and really this is
kind of the field that led to chemistry
alchemy
likes mix of physics and metaphysics arrived in Europe as early as the 9th
century
alchemists were preoccupied with the essential nature of substances and their
ability to transform into other ones
some believe that everything was made of small particles with books on them that
help them connect with other particles
rearrange and renumber the connections and you could according to the
alchemists recreate elements possibly out of combinations of mercury and
sulfur or led their premise of transmuting
other materials into gold this idea of you know creating the richest and
supposed to mining or finding our conquering for them which and the use of
energy to do that which led them to explore and open doors that they had no
real foreseeable understanding of the alchemists were mostly wrong but almost
right about some things
their search to make gold led them to discover useful metal alloys and the
concept of identifying elements by their burning characteristics
arguably the most famous Alchemist of all was Sir Isaac Newton
who attempted to create gold from the base metal leg
many of Newton's useful discoveries about the nature of gravity were derived
from his misguided efforts to make gold
today Gold's properties make it an important element used for more than
jewelry and coins because its electrons are able to move freely gold is an
excellent conductor of electricity
and it could be made into extremely fine sheets and wires bold is being used in
computer equipment and a lot of other high-tech electronics industry
of course there's there's also the the dental industry where gold crowns are
are very prevalent and have been overtime goal is also used for
electrical contacts in the aerospace industry because of its resistance to
oxidation or corrosion
and so in simple terms it would be that the contacts in a particular piece of
equipment will not oxidize surface doesn't oxidize and so the contact is
maintained particularly on spacecraft or satellites but the utility of gold is
tempered by its scarcity
as dazzling as gold is early Smith's recognized an iron alloy known as steel
as the more useful with it they would transform the world
the massive steel mill is the blacksmith's shop on a large scale
here millions of tons of raw iron are transformed into steel
this process has changed little from the early iron age back then
blacksmiths recognized an alloy stronger than iron it wasn't until probably 1500
BC that carbonized iron was really being worked on a broad scale and that was
sort of the beginning of sporadic still use
steel and alloy of iron and carbon and a byproduct of the wrought iron forging
process
was stronger
client and lighter than either iron copper or bronze it became the material
of choice for swords and armor but Smith's could only make steel in small
quantities
and with difficulty
that is until the mid 19th century when steel production was revolutionized by
Henry Bessemer the technology was developed independently by two different
people and best them are actually filed his patent than 1856
Henry bessemer's concept for mass production of Steel was a byproduct of
the crimean war of eighteen 54 to 56
Messimer invented an artillery shell too powerful for the cast iron cannons being
used to launch it
his solution was a stronger cannon made out of steel but no method existed to
make the alloy in the quantity of the Passover needed so he created himself
customer designed a large bottle shaped vessel into which liquid cast iron was
bored and in the bottom they were like huge air jets and they would they would
pump compressed air into this ladle and tilt it up so the molten iron africa
over the compressed air there would go through the iron and in doing so the
oxygen would combine with the carbon in the iron and burn out the impurities
such as carbon and silicon carbon could then be more easily reintroduced
specific levels to create a more balanced alloy and the end result was
steel
the greater control over the amount of carbon in the iron Smith's could better
control the quality of the steel
best of all they could make more steel in less time than before mass production
had begun
within a decade plants were built in the United States
soon more efficient methods for steel manufacturers such as the open hearth
method were adopted that didn't strip the steel of trace elements such as
manganese
and silicon
like the best more process did giving manufacturers even more quality control
its design allowed it to accept a much wider range of raw materials the
productivity was higher and very importantly the open hearth process
allowed the use of scrap scrap is already in a state of being steel and
the ability to reuse this raw material really is the cornerstone of Steel
recycling today and steel
today is the most of recycled material . the mid-nineteenth century the Iron Age
was replaced by the Industrial Revolution and all of its supported by
steel
in America first came the railroads that raced westward on high-quality steel
tracks
next the Great Plains fell to the steel farm equipment of settlers who work the
land skyscrapers rose as the strength of the steel i-beam enabled engineers to
create an internal skeleton that sent offices reaching for the sky the money
saved by being able to use a square piece of property but go higher and
higher is really what makes steel the efficient product that it is Manhattan
Island went vertical with steel top - 19:30 one by the Empire State Building
at 1,250 feet steel bridges of strength and flexibility spanned previously
unbridgeable gaps
ships that would have collapsed under their own weight if they had been made
of iron ore would exceed 1,000 feet and fifty thousand pounds when made of steel
and the automobile invented in the midst of this revolution relied on steel for
its engine and body
steel itself became an industry with us steel leading the pack and helping to
stimulate the giant American economy at the turn of the 20th century it was the
largest company in the United States tens of thousands of tons of steel per
day are made in steel plants around the u.s. in the united states in a year will
produce on the order of a hundred million tons of steel steel is as a
inexpensive per pound is a pound of potatoes
but just think of your day to day you started out by getting off a steel
spring bed went downstairs and made some coffee on a steel coffee makers a plate
that was the heating plate
stir this deal the coffee with sugar and cream with a steel spoon went down got
in your car went to got in a bus to go to your work with her steal vehicles
went to your office went up seven flights of stairs
if you were really into exercise or took the elevator which was held up by a
steel cable and go on and on and on
today's steel manufacturers can produce grades of the alloy with properties to
meet specific clients demands for even lighter and stronger steal these changes
are often the result of variations in processing
some of the new steals that are being used in the auto industry for example
don't come because we changed the recipe of making steel to change the practice
of rolling steel the different temperatures that we reduce the product
from a
a thick piece of steel to a thin piece of steel all that has a change in the
microstructure of the steel and and can give different properties which will
result in different applications abuse being able to create deals that are
ultra formable and strong
while retaining the low cost and being able to supply those are much thinner
gauges
so that you could design an automobile and it's no more if not less to
manufacture those are the kind of things that are happening and steal today
the result is that sixty percent of the types of steel used in today's cars
didn't even exist 10 years ago making these no steals possible are
improvements in manufacture over the open hearth process it was succeeded by
two processes that are in use today the basic oxygen furnace and the electric
arc furnace but the preceding processes best of our open hearth used air then
the basic oxygen furnace uses oxygen the electric arc furnace uses two large
graphite electrodes lowered from a lid to generate an electric current through
cold steel usually scrap the art from the current melts the steel
in addition to oxygen which is blown into the furnace to adjust the carbon
contact other elements are also added to the furnace to produce the desired
properties
in the end waste and impurities called slag are poured off the top of the steel
the electric arc furnace is the most cost effective method for producing
quality steel today
as a result steel manufacturers are able to supply every person in the united
states with a nine hundred and forty seven pounds of Steel they consume every
year
but even a steel manufacturers search for lighter stronger steel alloys
another metal existed that had many of those desirable properties
most of human history use of this strong light metal was nearly impossible
that is until people figured out how to mass produce aluminum steel was the
middle of the 19th century by the 20th century and found arrival aluminum has
accelerated our technological progress in the relatively few years that we've
been able to work which is fortunate since aluminum is not only the most
abundant metal on earth it is the third most common element making up more than
eight percent of the Earth's crust
it is probably the most quintessential element in terms of being locked up and
it's oxide the bonds that it has with oxygen or so powerful that simple
techniques that early man had were not sufficient to turn into metallic form
early man had little use for aluminum which was locked inside a clay-like
amalgam called box I'd they didn't know what they had they just had this special
clay that had strengthened different types of properties over the years
people began to understand that this aluminum oxide alumina was found in the
Earth's crust and and could be used and turned into a pure metal after pure
aluminum was discovered in 1825
it was considered a precious metal with a value on par with gold
aluminum is desirable because it is lightweight malleable and easily made
into wire
neither magnetic more prone to sparking it conducts electricity which makes it
useful for electrical transmission lines
it is a decorative metal and it bonds easily with other metallic elements to
create alloys much stronger and harder than pure aluminum but for most of human
history
aluminum could only be made in small quantities it was produced in laboratory
kind of conditions and 18 52 @ 545 dollars a pound so into it at that time
it was more expensive than gold
it wasn't until 1886 that a process was developed to remove the oxide from
aluminum and turn it into a viable material
the key to commercial production of aluminum was harnessing electricity not
possible until the latter 19th century
Charles Hall came up and and develop the process which is now today used as the
formal smelting process for actually making aluminum fall introduced an
electrical charge into the alloy aluminum oxide or alumina which forged
the ball of metal as the electricity broke the bond between aluminum and
oxygen
the ball was pure aluminum
this process is called an electrolytic reduction and it requires a lot of
energy which is why aluminum plants are usually built near power sources
all founded the Alcoa company with a group of investors in 1888
today alcoa is the largest supplier of aluminum in the world
despite its scale of production it produces aluminum in much the same way
hold it over a century ago
the main mineral deposits of box i would be found in the Caribbean Australia and
in Africa and those are the areas right now where we have our main mining
operations
so it's much like any type of a mining operation we go we dig dirt
in fact we have a little saying here that aluminum
it all starts with dirt
robach side in the dirt is reduced and refined down to powdered alumina
at this point the mining operation becomes a smelting one
the smelting component of is very complex it requires massive amounts of
electricity to unlock it from its or state
the method essentially the same as holes original process only on a larger scale
dissolves powdered alumina in a bath of the melted mineral cryolite contained in
carbon line pots
a very strong electric currents separate oxygen out of the aluminum as it passes
through the cryolite bath molten aluminum is then cooled and fashioned
into ingots or billets sold the manufacturers and turned into rods for
the construction industry sheets for more than a hundred billion aluminum
cans a year
for even thinner sheets for aluminum foil window panes siding commuter trains
even baseball parks contain aluminum
aluminum is inert in the human body and therefore relatively safe restoring food
it's even found in some toothpaste but aluminum made its biggest impact on an
industry that simply couldn't exist without it the Aeronautics industry
one of the benefits of people traditionally when they like to fly like
the plane to go up if you had a steel wanted it they would just way too much
about ninety percent of the metals across the board on a plane today are
going to be aluminum or aluminium powers
it's a huge benefit to have a lightweight strong metal that can
actually perform the way you wanted to perform in fact the very first airplane
that ever flew at Kitty Hawk in 1903 included and Alcoa aluminum engine block
installed by Orville and Wilbur Wright nearly every airplane flying today is
made of aluminum
aluminum made possible the manned rockets to the moon and the Space
Shuttle strong aluminum alloys are now being used extensively in automobiles
you've ever driven a big heavy car you're gone 40 miles an hour and you try
to stop quickly takes a big heavy car a little bit longer to stop then a lighter
car
that's part of the performance factor you have a car that has a decent size
engine with in it then hit the accelerator and that car happens to be
lighter
it takes less time for it to get to the speed that you want it that's part of
performance
so if you have an aluminum intensive park
it's going to have different performance capabilities than a big heavy type of
car so that's an example of why you might prefer to have all momentum versus
steel aluminum engines and panels may be strong and light and save on gas
but because of the energy costs associated with aluminum production
they're not as cheap as steel alloys which are becoming ever lighter
consumers must decide between performance and cost as the steel and
aluminum industries by for bigger shares of the market alone does come at a bit
of a premium to some other metals depending upon what the metal might be
but to steal for example it is at a premium and the way we go to the
manufacturers with that as we explained to them while the pound for pound basis
it might be more expensive
you have to look at it in totality aluminum industry searches for more
efficient less expensive ways to process bauxite into marketable metal even as it
develops stronger lighter alloys to compete with metals like steel
copper and iron to steal in aluminum our progress has been marked by newly
applied metals that are stronger and lighter so fundamentally similar to the
metals that have come previously but the middle of the future might just be a new
alloy that behaves in ways we've never seen metals behave before as mankind
advances new opportunities for metal present themselves
even though we may have known of a particular metals existence for
centuries
we had no use for it I think the metals importance determined what man was
trying to accomplish in a given time
take the Space Age metal titanium first discovered in 1791 and produced
commercially in 1946
it is a strong as steel but 45% later easily fabricated in corrosion resistant
titanium is alloyed with metals such as aluminum and iron for propeller shafts
and rigging on ships boats and oil platforms because titanium is
lightweight it is used extensively for missile and rocket parts and especially
in the Aeronautics industry
the people are probably most familiar with titanium as the principal material
in light-weight high-performance golf clubs but the true future metals may not
be the so-called new metals like titanium as much as new structures
taking it all down to the molecular level
turning crystalline solids like titanium iron and aluminium alloys into glasses
by melting them at extremely high temperatures then rapidly cooling them a
company in California has already done it with a super alloy called liquid
metal made of steel aluminum and titanium conventional metal is
crystallized when they solidify the farm crystals liquid metal is basically a
frozen liquid we call that a glass like a solid the molecules in a metallic
glass
do not move like a liquid they are not aligned in a uniform pattern
this molecular condition makes them very strong further they have fewer
structural defects because they are often fused from a powder providing
uniform consistency
this process allows them to be efficiently molding much like a plastic
rather than forged simultaneously drop a ball bearing on a stainless steel plate
titanium plate and a liquid metal plate and you see just how much stronger and
harder and elastic the metallic glasses
its strength for example then is typically two to three times stronger
than the same material in the crystal estate
maybe the future will see super light super strong
automobiles and airplanes made out of metallic glasses at the national
institute of standards and technology
scientists spend their careers testing and retesting metals and alloys to
better understand and exploit their unique properties
their work might lead to the development of more powerful computer drives the
size of a grain of rice
microscopic wires only 40 Adams wide or magnet powered refrigerators that run
not an electricity but spinning magnetic disks
there are even metals that can remember their original crystalline shape after
you dint them
dr. Richard fields is working on the shape-memory metals
this is a super elastic material and here you can see I try to bend it and of
course it doesn't seem too
it doesn't stay been very well
ok now let me show you what happens when I make this material cold
ok now I've had that same wire sitting in here in some dry ice so it's good and
cold and now when I bend it
you see it it bends just fine and if you watch it as it warms up it does
something
perhaps you're not used to in a metal ok done been slowly and that's the shape
memory effect
ok now this this material here is also like the super elastic material but it's
a slightly different composition
this is the real memory metal so called nitinol nickel-titanium this material
you'll see I can bend quite easily
in contrast to the other material however if I put this in hot water and
it immediately
unbend and returns to its original shape when you like to have a car made out of
that throw a bucket of hot water on the debt and it's all gone
and I st scientists are also studying wreckage from the world trade center in
an effort to create better steel structural steel will lose about ninety
percent of its strength in a fire that raises its temperature to a thousand
degrees Fahrenheit for more than 15 minutes a ninety percent loss of
strength will topple a skyscraper
but adding just one percent of the metal chromium and a half percent of the metal
molybdenum will cause the steel to retain as much as fifty percent of its
strength and a thousand degrees fahrenheit with only fifty percent loss
of strength steel will not fail as quickly because of the higher melting
temperature a burning skyscraper will stay up longer
I think we've been able to develop steals that have borne maybe a hundred
degrees above where the current ones a hundred degrees centigrade
if the World Trade Center had been built out of these still certainly have given
you a little more time
my current feeling is that these deals can be used effectively in many
applications that might be exposed to fires
japanese and german engineers are already putting this alloy to use in new
structures
as scientists continue to create new metals with unusual and original
properties other scientists are busy developing applications for those medals
around we go from Discovery to invention as we have for thousands of years ever
since that first person pulled a lump of molten copper out of a fire and forged
it into shape
transforming a collection of people into a striving civilization
ok