hello my name is Elaine Fuchs I'm 你好，我叫Elaine Fuchs，我在新的洛克菲勒大学就读。
hello my name is Elaine Fuchs I'm 纽约市，我是霍华德·休斯医学研究所的研究员，
hello my name is Elaine Fuchs I'm at the Rockefeller University in New 今天我想向您介绍干细胞的生物学特性
at the Rockefeller University in New 他们对再生医学的承诺
at the Rockefeller University in New York City and I'm an investigator of the 因此，让我们进入干细胞生物学的最开始
York City and I'm an investigator of the 本身是一个相对较新的词，直到1877年，泰克尔
York City and I'm an investigator of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and 德国科学家创造了“干细胞”或“受精卵”一词
Howard Hughes Medical Institute and 引起了体内所有细胞的最初定义
Howard Hughes Medical Institute and today I'd like to tell you about stem 干细胞，然后这个词由著名的EB Wilson推广
today I'd like to tell you about stem 1800年代后期的细胞生物学家在他的一本著作中对此进行了描述，
today I'd like to tell you about stem cells about their biology and about 然后大约30年后，这个人
cells about their biology and about 亚历山大·马克西莫夫（Alexander Maximov）是休斯的俄国科学家，他逃离了俄国革命
cells about their biology and about their promise for regenerative medicine 并加入了芝加哥大学，他是一名心理学家， 14 只是在显微镜下看着骨髓细胞，他看到了一些细胞
so let's go to the very beginnings of 似乎没有区别，他当时预测也许
so let's go to the very beginnings of 骨髓中含有可以产生所有不同细胞的细胞
so let's go to the very beginnings of stem cell biology the word stem cell 不管什么ik细胞谱系，这是干细胞的第一个概念
stem cell biology the word stem cell 可能不仅限于胚胎干细胞
stem cell biology the word stem cell itself is a relatively recent word it 产生我们身体的所有细胞，但实际上不同的组织可能
itself is a relatively recent word it 实际上含有干细胞，成年组织干细胞的限制性更强
itself is a relatively recent word it was only in 1877 that earns Tekel a 在这种情况下有潜力引起血细胞比容谱系，但
was only in 1877 that earns Tekel a 这只是一个假设，我们现在必须在60年后快速前进
was only in 1877 that earns Tekel a German scientist coined the word stem 1961年，当这两个人Ernest McCulloch和James Till
German scientist coined the word stem 做了出色的实验，证明了
German scientist coined the word stem cell a' or stem cell a fertilized egg 成人组织干细胞的存在，他们采取了实验动物，他们
cell a' or stem cell a fertilized egg 照射了它的骨髓，然后他们服用了健康的骨髓，
cell a' or stem cell a fertilized egg that gives rise to all the cells in the 一张一张地放入健康骨髓中的细胞，直到发现
that gives rise to all the cells in the 可以重构整个血细胞比容加速谱系的单个细胞
that gives rise to all the cells in the body that was the initial definition of 骨髓，这是组织干细胞的第一个证明
body that was the initial definition of 存在于成年人中，这确实为某些人打开了大门
body that was the initial definition of stem cells and then the word stem cell 令人兴奋的生物学来临，现在让我们再快进15年或
stem cells and then the word stem cell 因此，在完成Atilla McCulloch的开创性工作之后，直到
stem cells and then the word stem cell became popularized by EB Wilson a famous 1970年代中期，这个刚去世的人Howard Greene
became popularized by EB Wilson a famous 他当时在麻省理工学院就读了一块人类皮肤，并能够进行文化
became popularized by EB Wilson a famous cell biologist in the late 1800s who 和人类皮肤的传代细胞，他有能力
cell biologist in the late 1800s who 在细胞仍然可以制造组织的条件下
cell biologist in the late 1800s who wrote about it in one of his books so 建立了培养成人组织干细胞的能力
wrote about it in one of his books so 这种情况下，干细胞来自皮肤，所以让我们看一些
wrote about it in one of his books so then it was about 30 years later when 在早期进行的实验有可能
then it was about 30 years later when 有效地培养胚胎，在这种情况下，成年皮肤干细胞和
then it was about 30 years later when this person 通过这些细胞，您会在中间面板看到染色体黑暗
this person 这些细胞内的染色体在培养中迅速分裂，如果
this person Alexander maximov was a Hughes a Russian 你看下面的面板，你看到的实际上是重构后的皮肤
Alexander maximov was a Hughes a Russian 这种情况下重组了表皮，这些表皮完全是由这些单一的
Alexander maximov was a Hughes a Russian scientist he fled the Russian Revolution 实际上培养的干细胞我们没有称它们为干细胞
scientist he fled the Russian Revolution 我们称它们为角质形成细胞表皮角质形成细胞的时间
scientist he fled the Russian Revolution and joined the ranks to the University 这些是组织干细胞，所以霍华德·格林很快就认识到
and joined the ranks to the University 在这种情况下，他刚刚为治疗开发的技术
and joined the ranks to the University of Chicago he was a psychologist and 烧伤患者中，他从未受影响的区域
of Chicago he was a psychologist and 烧伤病人，然后培养这些细胞，长出表皮，然后
of Chicago he was a psychologist and just looking underneath the microscope 将这些细胞移植到同一名患者的烧伤部位
just looking underneath the microscope 良好的皮肤和培养中的细胞膨胀，其起作用的原因
just looking underneath the microscope at bone marrow cells he saw some cells 是可以使用生长因子和营养素使细胞生长
at bone marrow cells he saw some cells 快速生成皮肤片，以便能够用于烧伤治疗
at bone marrow cells he saw some cells that seemed undifferentiated and he 那些早期的博士。格林能够有效治愈
that seemed undifferentiated and he 或治疗烧伤率高达95％的患者
that seemed undifferentiated and he predicted at that time that perhaps the 其皮肤总表面的显着性是由一些茎产生的
predicted at that time that perhaps the 在皮肤中不断传代的细胞，我们学到了非常重要的
predicted at that time that perhaps the bone marrow contained a cell that can 从这个有效的教训，现在我们已经有35年成功使用茎
bone marrow contained a cell that can 细胞在临床环境中，我认为
bone marrow contained a cell that can give rise to all the different huh 那就是那些皮肤几乎完全被重建的患者
give rise to all the different huh 如果您永远都不会出现异常迹象，那就从干细胞疗法中
give rise to all the different huh matter what ik cell lineages and that 显示出皮肤或癌症的遗传改变迹象，可能会给我们
matter what ik cell lineages and that 长期培养这些细胞的想法或想法可能是
matter what ik cell lineages and that was the first notion that stem cells 这些细胞在某种程度上对细胞有害
was the first notion that stem cells 仍然产生了健康的表皮，这种能力可以在体内培养干细胞。
was the first notion that stem cells might not simply be restricted to 成为实验室的基础
might not simply be restricted to 胚胎干细胞研究将在五年后再进行
might not simply be restricted to embryonic stem cells the cells that can 霍华德（Howard）进行了开拓性的工作，那里的突破确实是
embryonic stem cells the cells that can 认识到干细胞不能独自生存，他们需要其他
embryonic stem cells the cells that can give rise to all the cells of our body 细胞以维持生命，以及霍华德·格林在突破中做了什么
give rise to all the cells of our body 培养胚胎到培养的人类皮肤干细胞的工作基本上是
give rise to all the cells of our body but actually the different tissues might 认识到表皮干细胞依赖于真皮细胞来获得它们
but actually the different tissues might 成长和维持，所以他使用了所谓的成纤维细胞饲养层
but actually the different tissues might actually contain stem cells adult tissue 辐射的成纤维细胞层，以便能够使人类成长
actually contain stem cells adult tissue 表皮干细胞位于其顶部，然后该研究还充当了
actually contain stem cells adult tissue stem cells that had a more restricted 胚胎干细胞培养的基础，也因为
stem cells that had a more restricted 添加成纤维细胞饲养层，那么干细胞是什么，
stem cells that had a more restricted potential being in this case able to 按照定义中的基本原则，干细胞是
potential being in this case able to 如果我们谈论胚胎干细胞，就可以制造动物
potential being in this case able to give rise to the hematocrit lineages but 干细胞具有重构整个动物干细胞的全部能力
give rise to the hematocrit lineages but 如果我们谈论成年茎，有能力制造和补充组织
give rise to the hematocrit lineages but that was just a postulate and we now 细胞，因此成体干细胞可以补充组织中的胚胎干细胞
that was just a postulate and we now 制作动物的能力以及我们对茎的了解
that was just a postulate and we now have to fast forward some 60 years later 细胞，特别是成人组织的干细胞，它们具有
have to fast forward some 60 years later 不仅能够产生自我的能力，这意味着他们可以
have to fast forward some 60 years later when these two individuals Ernest 自我更新，但他们也有能力
when these two individuals Ernest 产生寿命短的祖细胞，这些祖细胞通常会迅速繁殖
when these two individuals Ernest McCulloch and James Till back in 1961 继而继续制造组织分化细胞的祖细胞
McCulloch and James Till back in 1961 这种情况是表皮，通常是短暂的
McCulloch and James Till back in 1961 did the remarkable 祖细胞或这些具有扩增功能的细胞
did the remarkable 产生干细胞仅分裂的大部分组织的能力
did the remarkable experiment that demonstrated the 在大多数情况下相对较少，那么两者之间有什么区别
experiment that demonstrated the 胚胎干细胞和成体干细胞胚胎干细胞是多能的，它们可以
experiment that demonstrated the existence of adult tissue stem cells 产生动物的所有细胞，除了支持细胞或
existence of adult tissue stem cells 对于成人干细胞，胎盘通常是多能的，可以
existence of adult tissue stem cells they took a laboratory animal and they 产生我们身体的几种不同组织，有时它们是单能的
they took a laboratory animal and they 只能产生我们身体的单个组织或分化细胞，所以在
they took a laboratory animal and they irradiated its bone marrow and then they 我想集中讲授系列讲座的第一部分
irradiated its bone marrow and then they 干细胞，诱导性多能干细胞及其在碱性基础上的其他应用
irradiated its bone marrow and then they took a healthy bone marrow and 科学医学和制药业
took a healthy bone marrow and 因此，如果我们进入早期发育阶段，胚胎干细胞从何而来
took a healthy bone marrow and one-by-one put in the cells from the 胚胎只有几天的胚泡，它包含数百个
one-by-one put in the cells from the 细胞最多，此时为胚泡
one-by-one put in the cells from the healthy bone marrow until they found a 有一组称为内部细胞质量细胞的细胞，它们是
healthy bone marrow until they found a 发育成胎儿或胚胎的细胞周围的细胞
healthy bone marrow until they found a single cell that could reconstitute the 围绕内部细胞团的细胞层称为滋养外胚层
single cell that could reconstitute the 滋养外胚层将发展成胎儿支持组织
single cell that could reconstitute the entire hematocrit accel lineages of the 胚胎，所以这些细胞不会引起胚胎的任何部分，但基本上
entire hematocrit accel lineages of the 它们在子宫中是必需的，以便能够发育胎儿，以便科学家学习
entire hematocrit accel lineages of the bone marrow and that was the first 然后可以将内部细胞团放入细胞中
bone marrow and that was the first 放入成纤维细胞饲养器的培养皿中
bone marrow and that was the first demonstration that tissue stem cells 层或具有支持内部细胞团的适当营养素
demonstration that tissue stem cells 现在他们可以培养那些被称为培养物的细胞
demonstration that tissue stem cells existed within adult the adult and that 胚胎干细胞的培养
existed within adult the adult and that 这些胚胎干细胞可以传代而来
existed within adult the adult and that really opened the door for some really 就像我对您所说的，表皮干细胞
really opened the door for some really 最初是这些电池，现在的功率比
really opened the door for some really exciting biology to come so let's fast 皮肤细胞为何如此重要呢？让我们考虑一下
exciting biology to come so let's fast 再生医学的未来有许多不同的细胞类型
exciting biology to come so let's fast forward now again to another 15 years or 我们没有太多的信息，并且有很多不同的类型
forward now again to another 15 years or 人类可能会产生的神经细胞遗传疾病
forward now again to another 15 years or so after the pioneering work of Atilla 神经细胞可能用于治疗帕金森氏症或阿尔茨海默氏症
so after the pioneering work of Atilla 疾病科学家对产生神经细胞的能力感到兴奋
so after the pioneering work of Atilla McCulloch and now it wasn't until the 脊髓损伤的治疗科学家对此感到兴奋
McCulloch and now it wasn't until the 培养胰腺胰岛细胞的能力，可能用于治疗
McCulloch and now it wasn't until the mid 1970s when this person 糖尿病性肌营养不良和心脏猝死的糖尿病肌细胞
mid 1970s when this person 免疫缺陷疾病或思维的综合症免疫细胞
mid 1970s when this person Howard Greene who recently passed away 关于癌症的治疗，有可能产生干细胞
Howard Greene who recently passed away 衍生或产生癌症，在文化和科学家中也是可能的
Howard Greene who recently passed away he was then at MIT and he took a piece 对利用这些类型的技术非常感兴趣，以便成为
he was then at MIT and he took a piece 能够了解更多有关生物学的信息，而不仅仅是治疗
he was then at MIT and he took a piece of human skin and was able to culture 的患者，但真正了解这些
of human skin and was able to culture 细胞发育，并赋予它们最终能够出现的特性
of human skin and was able to culture and passage cells from the piece of 针对各种不同类型的疾病提供了新的疗法和治疗方法，
and passage cells from the piece of 这不仅涉及临床医生和
and passage cells from the piece of human skin and he capacity to them 科学家，还有制药业或生物技术业
human skin and he capacity to them 因此，让我们看一些胚胎干细胞的例子
human skin and he capacity to them endlessly under conditions where the 在这种情况下可以做到
endlessly under conditions where the 使这些细胞分化为肌肉细胞的生长因子和
endlessly under conditions where the cells could still make tissue this 现在看刺绣，这是戈登·凯勒和他的作品
cells could still make tissue this 多伦多大学的同事们可以看到细胞经历了
cells could still make tissue this established the existence of the ability 跳动功能，您可以看到一些基本的例子
established the existence of the ability 在培养皿中正在经历心肌细胞收缩的过程
established the existence of the ability to culture adult tissue stem cells in 有趣的是，他们以一种同步的方式经历了他们，
to culture adult tissue stem cells in 心脏细胞在我们体内起作用，所以在现在进行的最早的实验之一中，
to culture adult tissue stem cells in this case stem cells coming from the 十年前，科学家采取了胚胎干细胞并将其分化为
this case stem cells coming from the 神经元，并在这种情况下用它们来治疗大鼠的瘫痪，这是
this case stem cells coming from the skin so let's take a look at some of the 大鼠在注射胚胎干细胞前先将干细胞分化为
skin so let's take a look at some of the 脊髓神经元，这是治疗后的老鼠，现在这些都是早期的
skin so let's take a look at some of the experiments that were done in those 科学家在这些治疗方法上已经取得了很大进步，但是
experiments that were done in those 同样，这些治疗最终将是必要的，以便
experiments that were done in those early days it was possible to to 推动该领域向前发展，以便为将来的治疗思考
early days it was possible to to 现在让我们转到2017年，科学家现在做得如何好，有可能
early days it was possible to to effectively culture the embryo in this 将胚胎干细胞不仅分化为神经元，而且分化为特异的
effectively culture the embryo in this 神经元的类型在神经元中有数百种不同类型的神经元
effectively culture the embryo in this case the adult skin stem cells and 在这种情况下，他们采取了人类胚胎干细胞衍生的皮质神经元，
case the adult skin stem cells and 将它们移植到小鼠皮质中，所以我将在下面描述的这项工作的重要性
case the adult skin stem cells and passage those cells and you see in the 片刻，但这些是劳伦斯·都铎（Lawrence Tudor）的研究，他是我其中一位科学家
passage those cells and you see in the 斯隆－凯特琳癌症研究所对面的同事
passage those cells and you see in the middle panel the chromosomes the dark 在这种情况下，您现在看到的白色细胞是人类皮层神经元，
middle panel the chromosomes the dark 您正在查看的组织切片是三个月后的老鼠大脑
middle panel the chromosomes the dark chromosomes within the cells these cells 移植后，甚至在移植后六个月的图表之后，
chromosomes within the cells these cells 它们仍然存在于人类的大脑皮质皮质神经元中，但是
chromosomes within the cells these cells were rapidly dividing in culture and if 科学家目前正试图了解他们是否在正确地工作
were rapidly dividing in culture and if 它们表现为皮质神经元的方式，这对于
were rapidly dividing in culture and if you look at the bottom panel what you 治疗多种不同的疾病，它使科学家能够
you look at the bottom panel what you 详细了解阿尔茨海默氏症自闭症的生物学和
you look at the bottom panel what you see is actually reconstituted skin in 我们大脑皮层的许多其他疾病，那么道德问题是什么
see is actually reconstituted skin in 涉及为何关于胚胎干细胞的争议如此之大
see is actually reconstituted skin in this case reconstituted epidermis that 一方面要做好研究，重要的是要知道人类胚胎
this case reconstituted epidermis that 干细胞是从受精卵中培养而来的，
this case reconstituted epidermis that was generated entirely from these single 除了基本制造以外，反对培养受精卵
was generated entirely from these single 然而，人类的对立面是人类的胚泡和胚胎
was generated entirely from these single stem cells that were cultured in fact we 干细胞可以只用卵和精子来创建，它们可以用
stem cells that were cultured in fact we 无需子宫的文化
stem cells that were cultured in fact we didn't call them stem cells 另外，我刚刚向您介绍的技术涉及确切的
didn't call them stem cells 与体外受精相同的步骤，所以我认为这些类型的技术
didn't call them stem cells the time we called them keratinocytes 是取得了巨大进步的技术，
the time we called them keratinocytes 某些人的伦理关切是，将受精卵用于
the time we called them keratinocytes epidermal keratinocytes but effectively 体外受精是一回事，但用于研究却是另一回事
epidermal keratinocytes but effectively 实际上，现在经常丢弃或冷冻来自体外受精的胚胎，或者
epidermal keratinocytes but effectively these were tissue stem cells so Howard 没用过，所以这个问题很好，可以将胚胎植入到
these were tissue stem cells so Howard 女人想要一个孩子，因此使用会不道德
these were tissue stem cells so Howard green very soon recognized the power of 另一方面，这些胚胎是与此相反的
green very soon recognized the power of 有观点认为，体外受精的胚胎仍然很多
green very soon recognized the power of the technology that he had just 丢弃的是未使用的，另一方面是它们可以用于
the technology that he had just 科学家能够学习如何产生胰岛细胞神经元
the technology that he had just developed for the treatment in this case 用于治疗人类疾病和损伤的肌肉细胞
developed for the treatment in this case 克服了科学家要做的道德问题
developed for the treatment in this case of burn patients 能够适应这项技术并将其进一步发展到诊所的水平
of burn patients 第一步是将胚胎干细胞用于产生
of burn patients he took skin from the unaffected area of 神经元，然后植入例如老年痴呆症的患者体内
he took skin from the unaffected area of 基本上被身体排斥，因为您身体的免疫系统
he took skin from the unaffected area of a burn patient and then cultured those 识别外来细胞并消除它们，所以什么是
a burn patient and then cultured those 科学家想出的下一步产生干细胞的方法
a burn patient and then cultured those cells grew sheets of epidermis and then 克服了免疫排斥的问题
cells grew sheets of epidermis and then 技术，这就是所谓的核转让技术，在这种情况下，
cells grew sheets of epidermis and then grafted those cells onto the burned area 现在取一个未受精的卵母细胞
grafted those cells onto the burned area 卵母细胞受精的o部位或卵子我们在这里取未受精的o部位
grafted those cells onto the burned area of the patient same patient just taking 删除并丢弃OA站点的核，然后将其替换为
of the patient same patient just taking 成人体细胞的核，例如皮肤细胞缺失技术，实际上是
of the patient same patient just taking good skin and expanding the cells in 一直由1962年由约翰·古登（John Gurdon）执行的技术
good skin and expanding the cells in 他最近因使用俄狄浦斯蛋而获得了这些开创性研究的诺贝尔奖
good skin and expanding the cells in culture and the reason why that worked 并通过核转移基本上以这种方式修改了卵，以便
culture and the reason why that worked 产生一个杂种细胞，现在是具有一个细胞的未受精卵母细胞的一个细胞
culture and the reason why that worked is that you could use growth factors and 和另一个细胞的细胞核，并利用它来发育
is that you could use growth factors and 大约十年前在我实验室里的普通t现在我们使用这种类型
is that you could use growth factors and nutrients that allowed the cells to grow 为了获取皮肤干细胞并基本上使用核
nutrients that allowed the cells to grow 为了将其放入未受精的老鼠o部位并使用
nutrients that allowed the cells to grow fast generate sheets of skin in order to 技术，我们能够有效地克隆并创建健康的小鼠
fast generate sheets of skin in order to 该技术已经存在并取得了成功，这是黄金标准
fast generate sheets of skin in order to be able to be used for burn therapy in 由这些体细胞之一产生的正常健康的小鼠
be able to be used for burn therapy in 核转移实验然而，实验充满了
be able to be used for burn therapy in those early days 有一些问题，并非每只鼠标都正常，效率仍然存在
those early days 令人期待的东西，但我认为技术是非凡的
those early days dr. Greene was able to effectively cure 真正成功了，那么如何将其适应核转移
dr. Greene was able to effectively cure 人类研究显然我们不想将其用于类似
dr. Greene was able to effectively cure or treat 在人类水平上克隆，但还有更重要的类型
or treat 在这种情况下可以使用的方法，我们仅转到
or treat patients that had burns up to 95 percent 这种情况下，一个未受精的人类视线移开并丢弃了它的核，现在
patients that had burns up to 95 percent 用成年的体细胞（如皮肤细胞）的核代替它，现在
patients that had burns up to 95 percent of their total surface of their skin 如果我们有效地去那些杂种细胞并培养它们到
of their total surface of their skin 水平的囊胚，然后创建内部细胞团细胞，我们可以
of their total surface of their skin remarkable all generated from a few stem 培养那些细胞，直到现在我们才能产生胚胎干细胞。
remarkable all generated from a few stem 核基本上是拥有皮肤细胞的人的核，
remarkable all generated from a few stem cells that were endlessly passaged in 这种情况可能是病人，所以现在在这种技术中
cells that were endlessly passaged in 衍生的细胞，例如来自体细胞核的神经元
cells that were endlessly passaged in skin and we've learned a very important 转移将不被视为国外转移，并且将被
skin and we've learned a very important 人，所以这使我们越过了生物学上发生的事情
skin and we've learned a very important lesson from this effectively now we have 那么生物学呢，我刚刚向您描述的生物学是
lesson from this effectively now we have 表观遗传学的生物学，我们都知道，我们所有的细胞
lesson from this effectively now we have a 35 year of success of the use of stem 人体具有相同的基因我们身体的每个细胞都具有相同的基因
a 35 year of success of the use of stem 在发育过程中，基因被修饰，使得一些基因被转化
a 35 year of success of the use of stem cells in a clinical setting and I think 在一个细胞中关闭，在另一个细胞中打开，而其他基因在
cells in a clinical setting and I think 该细胞在另一个细胞中打开，这就是给我们身体的每个细胞提供能量的原因
cells in a clinical setting and I think one of the most remarkable aspects of 这就是为什么我们的皮肤细胞是皮肤细胞，神经细胞是
one of the most remarkable aspects of 神经元表皮干细胞肌肉细胞肝细胞毛细胞所有细胞
one of the most remarkable aspects of that is is that those patients whose 我们身体的一部分具有自己的身份，它们通过相同的DNA获得，但通过
that is is that those patients whose 表观遗传学打开一些基因，然后关闭其他基因，所以如果您从
that is is that those patients whose skin was almost entirely reconstituted 关闭了皮肤细胞表达的各种基因的皮肤细胞
skin was almost entirely reconstituted 胚胎干细胞对此的修饰是
skin was almost entirely reconstituted from stem cell therapy if you will never 我作为皮肤细胞的身份必须删除才能使细胞起作用
from stem cell therapy if you will never 像干细胞一样变成胚胎的这种现象称为
from stem cell therapy if you will never showed signs of abnormalities never 表观遗传重编程改变基因内部状态的能力
showed signs of abnormalities never 核能够做一些其他事情来打开一些基因并打开
showed signs of abnormalities never showed signs of genetic alterations in 离开别人，所以我刚才在体细胞核中向您描述的实验
showed signs of genetic alterations in 转移基本上告诉我们这是那个未受精卵的细胞质
showed signs of genetic alterations in the skin or of cancer that might give us 必须支持未指定状态的状态，它会产生各种不同的状态
the skin or of cancer that might give us 染色质重编程因子基本上抹去了
the skin or of cancer that might give us a an idea or a notion that culturing 皮肤的茎，皮肤的新核，那里曾经是皮肤细胞
a an idea or a notion that culturing 不需要重新编程事件和躯体的任何划分
a an idea or a notion that culturing those cells long-term might be 核转移，所以我向您描述的实验是重新编程
those cells long-term might be 只是由细胞核中的细胞质因子引起的
those cells long-term might be deleterious for the cells in some way 未受精的卵，但这又是宗教伦理问题是
deleterious for the cells in some way 通过体细胞核移植进行的重编程在这一过程中仍然涉及一个鸡蛋
deleterious for the cells in some way remarkably the skin of those patients 遇到未受精的单个胚胎细胞，那么我们如何解决
remarkably the skin of those patients 使用人类胚胎细胞以便能够创建细胞的问题
remarkably the skin of those patients still were produced healthy epidermis 表现出类似胚胎的状态，可用于各种治疗
still were produced healthy epidermis 我刚才提到的，让我们去看山中伸弥的开拓性工作
still were produced healthy epidermis this ability to culture stem cells in in 他们在2006年使用小鼠成体细胞重新编程了这些成年皮肤
this ability to culture stem cells in in 细胞不使用Oh站点就变成胚胎样细胞
this ability to culture stem cells in in the laboratory 申请或不使用未受精
the laboratory 鸡蛋，山中和他的同事所做的技术就是带一个成年人
the laboratory and out to be the foundations for 皮肤细胞，看看成年皮肤细胞和什么之间的区别
and out to be the foundations for 成年皮肤细胞产生的各种转录因子与
and out to be the foundations for embryonic stem cell research which was 胚胎干细胞以及胚胎干中有哪些转录因子
embryonic stem cell research which was 细胞正在有效地制造出这两个细胞的区别是什么
embryonic stem cell research which was going to come another five years after 他们的身份，并利用他们的优势，然后引入了
going to come another five years after 表达胚胎干细胞的转录因子基因
going to come another five years after Howard greens pioneering work and there 转录因子谱进入成年干细胞成年皮肤细胞然后
Howard greens pioneering work and there 他们开始一个接一个地减少了复杂性
Howard greens pioneering work and there the breakthrough was really the 转录因子谱，直到他们发现只有四个转录
the breakthrough was really the 证明是由胚胎干细胞而非成年人表达的因素
the breakthrough was really the realization that stem cells cannot 皮肤细胞，但可以顺应或重新编程皮肤细胞，使其表现得像
realization that stem cells cannot 在这种情况下，它们是胚胎干细胞，他们使用了逆转录病毒
realization that stem cells cannot survive on their own they require other 包含了编码Kaela的基因，其中acht 4糟透了2和ce mec，他们
survive on their own they require other 将它们放入成人皮肤细胞中，他们所能做的就是找到
survive on their own they require other cells for their sustenance and what 其培养物中的细胞被称为诱导多能干细胞
cells for their sustenance and what 这些单元格实际上在所有实际用途中看起来像
cells for their sustenance and what Howard Greene did in his breakthrough 胚胎干细胞只有现在没有受精的OA位点
Howard Greene did in his breakthrough 或未受精的技术是什么，所以有什么区别
Howard Greene did in his breakthrough work to culture embryonic to cultured 遗传重编程与表观遗传重编程之间
work to culture embryonic to cultured 强制开关byuk局部诱导calif或acht的活动形式
work to culture embryonic to cultured human skin stem cells was basically the 对于后代和后代
human skin stem cells was basically the 编程通过改变核环境来实现转换
human skin stem cells was basically the realization that epidermal stem cells 导致其内源性klf4倍频程或吮吸的方式-和ce mec基因为
realization that epidermal stem cells 打开时记住我们身体的所有细胞都具有相同的遗传成分
realization that epidermal stem cells rely upon dermal cells in order for them 我们的皮肤细胞有这些基因，只是我们的皮肤细胞关闭了这些
rely upon dermal cells in order for them 基因以及通过我在体细胞中向您描述的表观遗传程序
rely upon dermal cells in order for them to grow and be maintained so he used 核转移这些基因在这种情况下又通过遗传开启
to grow and be maintained so he used 正如我在Shinya的开创性研究中向您描述的那样重新编程
to grow and be maintained so he used what is called a fibroblast feeder layer Yamanaka和他的同事这些基因是那些基因的活跃形式
what is called a fibroblast feeder layer 基因被提供给皮肤细胞，因此在将体细胞转化为皮肤细胞的过程中
what is called a fibroblast feeder layer an irradiated layer of fibroblasts in 诱导多能细胞袜子的内源性损失I
an irradiated layer of fibroblasts in for和ce mec基因在持续异位约10天后打开
an irradiated layer of fibroblasts in order to be able to grow the human 这些转录因子的表达，这是一个了不起的
order to be able to grow the human 实现这一目标的突破，因此需要介绍一些
order to be able to grow the human epidermal stem cells on top of it and 进入成年皮肤细胞处于活跃状态的四个基因导致
epidermal stem cells on top of it and 激活该皮肤细胞区域染色质中的这四个基因
epidermal stem cells on top of it and that research then served as also the 通常沉默，这是了不起的，我们现在已经了解了很多
that research then served as also the 关于这个过程，今天我没有时间详细介绍
that research then served as also the foundation for embryonic stem cell 皮肤细胞向皮肤的转化过程中发生的另一个显着变化
foundation for embryonic stem cell X沉默使体细胞IPS细胞诱导的多能干细胞。
foundation for embryonic stem cell culture which also succeeded because of 正常情况下，我们体内的染色体只有一个X染色体末端
culture which also succeeded because of 活跃起来，而另一端的X染色体却被沉默了，但是
culture which also succeeded because of the addition of the fibroblast feeder 在早期胚胎状态，染色体都被激活，并且在
the addition of the fibroblast feeder 基本上将这种变化有效地引入IPS电池
the addition of the fibroblast feeder layer so what are stem cells then let's 回到另一个令人惊奇的事情是，局部引入的编码基因
layer so what are stem cells then let's 糟透了，为凯拉（Kayla）表演，而塞玛克（Semak）却经过了数次沉默
layer so what are stem cells then let's get down to the basics in the definition 持续异位表达的天数，在内源性吸吮后
get down to the basics in the definition klf4和ce mec基因已打开，因此仅瞬时表达
get down to the basics in the definition basically stem cells are cells that are 在胚胎中表达的持续激活的转录因子
basically stem cells are cells that are 为了有效地重设
basically stem cells are cells that are able to make an animal if we're talking 从分子来看，成人皮肤细胞的未分化钟表确实出色
able to make an animal if we're talking 生物学上的理解和真正的变革性
able to make an animal if we're talking about embryonic stem cells the embryonic 多能干细胞可以做到这一点，让我们来看看我们在2018年的状况
about embryonic stem cells the embryonic 关于目前诱导多能干细胞或IPS的方法
about embryonic stem cells the embryonic stem cells have all the power to 重编程我已经谈过遗传改变DNA的整合
stem cells have all the power to 活性基因的活性形式是转录因子进入DNA的
stem cells have all the power to reconstitute an entire animal stem cells 皮肤细胞是基因重编程事件，我也谈到了
reconstitute an entire animal stem cells 向您介绍没有永久性基因改变的表观遗传学
reconstitute an entire animal stem cells have the ability to make and replenish a 科学家使用化学药品，使用小分子，使用RNA
have the ability to make and replenish a 为了能够在表观遗传上重编程成年皮肤细胞而无需
have the ability to make and replenish a tissue if we're talking about adult stem 需要将外源基因或基因的异位表达引入其中
tissue if we're talking about adult stem 现在，只需在皮氏培养皿中放置皮肤细胞，细胞的显着进步
tissue if we're talking about adult stem cells so adult stem cells replenish the 使用正确的化学混合物，现在有可能
cells so adult stem cells replenish the 转换细胞，就好像是胚胎一样
cells so adult stem cells replenish the tissue embryonic stem cells have the 因此，如果我们现在来看一下总结体细胞核的进展
tissue embryonic stem cells have the 转移和诱导多能干细胞前沿，那是在2007年，当时
tissue embryonic stem cells have the capacity to make the animal and 利用皮肤核移植培养猴胚胎干细胞。
capacity to make the animal and 使用成人皮肤核培养2013年人类胚胎干细胞
capacity to make the animal and effectively what we know about stem 在2007年的转会中，我谈到了山中伸弥（Shinya Yamanaka）的开拓性工作，
effectively what we know about stem 关于通过逆转录病毒生产人诱导的多能干细胞
effectively what we know about stem cells and particularly stem cells of 这四个转录因子I转染成人皮肤细胞
cells and particularly stem cells of 谈到我实际上没有谈论，但是我现在会这样做
cells and particularly stem cells of adult tissues is that they have the 不需要见Mik致癌物见Mick，因为Mick是潜在的致癌基因
adult tissues is that they have the 这是山中伸弥（Shinya Yamanaka）所使用的那杯鸡尾酒的重要成分
adult tissues is that they have the ability to be able to generate not only 2007年，但仅仅一到两年后，科学家们发现
ability to be able to generate not only 基本上不是水生生物的另一种转录因子nanog可以
ability to be able to generate not only self so that means that they can 取代ce mec，所以科学家正在使用的早期小鼠
self so that means that they can 仅诱导多能干细胞的类胚胎干细胞技术
self so that means that they can self-renew 那些早期的小鼠发展成肿瘤，现在这些小鼠避免将Mick作为
self-renew 四个转录因子已基本缓解或消除了这种危险
self-renew but they also have the ability to 在2008年至2013年之间，科学家最初使用腺病毒递送
but they also have the ability to 逆转录病毒不是逆转录病毒，而是整合到人体内
but they also have the ability to produce short-lived progenitors these 干细胞皮肤细胞染色质腺病毒不转移
produce short-lived progenitors these 作为附加体，因此最终它们被稀释并丢失
produce short-lived progenitors these are often rapidly proliferating 然后科学家开始提供重组的直接递送
are often rapidly proliferating 转录因子蛋白可避免皮肤的遗传操作
are often rapidly proliferating progenitors that then go on to make the 细胞，然后几年后，科学家开始引入
progenitors that then go on to make the 修饰用于多能因子的稳定RNA，然后科学家终于有了
progenitors that then go on to make the differentiated cells of a tissue so in 一直在使用小分子和化学物质表观遗传地开启
differentiated cells of a tissue so in 胚胎样基因表达程序，然后快速前进我们该怎么做
differentiated cells of a tissue so in this case it would be the epidermis and 那些诱导多能干细胞，现在科学家们已经开始
this case it would be the epidermis and 神经元，但现在基本上是许多不同类型的人体细胞
this case it would be the epidermis and it's often then the short-lived 这些重新编程的成人皮肤细胞，并有效地产生所有
it's often then the short-lived 诱导性多能干细胞导致体内不同类型的细胞
it's often then the short-lived progenitor cells or these tre 技术，我将再次向您展示这个例子
progenitor cells or these tre 斯隆·凯特琳癌症研究所的劳伦斯·都铎，在这里我展示
progenitor cells or these tre at amplifying cells that have the 你我PS细胞衍生的周围感觉神经元整盘
at amplifying cells that have the 这些IPS细胞产生的感觉神经元
at amplifying cells that have the ability to generate the bulk of the 现在非常有可能研究这些周围的感觉
ability to generate the bulk of the 神经元对疼痛敏感，需要检查才能使用各种不同的探针
ability to generate the bulk of the tissue the stem cells only divide 可能会让他们看到疼痛可能如何以及如何疼痛
tissue the stem cells only divide 产生了如何将其有效地传递回大脑的信息，
tissue the stem cells only divide relatively sparingly in most situations IPS技术的临床应用还算不错
relatively sparingly in most situations 技术驱动的疗法可治疗黄斑变性
relatively sparingly in most situations so what are the differences then between 提取人类iPS细胞并使其分化，使它们变得美丽
so what are the differences then between 人视网膜色素上皮细胞和那些是
so what are the differences then between embryonic and adult stem cells embryonic 黄斑变性会导致变性，所以最早的临床研究表明
embryonic and adult stem cells embryonic 使用IPS电池技术完成的是Rican的Masao Takahashi的技术
embryonic and adult stem cells embryonic stem cells are pluripotent and they can 日本神户研究所，这些研究是在2014年9月进行的
stem cells are pluripotent and they can 不幸的是，涉及IPS细胞技术的首次临床试验
stem cells are pluripotent and they can generate all of the cells of the animal 前两名患者接受治疗后，研究停止，他们开始
generate all of the cells of the animal 表现出视力有所改善的迹象，但问题是，当
generate all of the cells of the animal except for the support cells or the 科学家测试了视网膜色素上皮细胞的DNA
except for the support cells or the 他们发现了一些遗传异常，可能是
except for the support cells or the placenta in the case of adult stem cells 扩张了我们，所以他们停止了研究，并基本上停止了研究
placenta in the case of adult stem cells 这说明尽管作出了承诺，但仍有工作要做
placenta in the case of adult stem cells these are usually multipotent and can 和科学家这些科学家和其他人现在正在积极尝试
these are usually multipotent and can 了解如何能够维持和繁殖这些视网膜色素
these are usually multipotent and can generate several different tissues of 上皮细胞在没有获得额外遗传的条件下
generate several different tissues of 改变，因此目前将这项工作提交，直到遗传稳定
generate several different tissues of our body sometimes their unipotent 可以进一步评估，但最终应该是时间问题
our body sometimes their unipotent 在克服这些障碍之前，那么干细胞治疗2型
our body sometimes their unipotent and can only generate a single tissue or 我在哈佛大学的同事道格·梅尔顿（Doug Melton）曾经患过的一种糖尿病
and can only generate a single tissue or 自从他的儿子被首次确诊为
and can only generate a single tissue or differentiated cell of our body so in 他改变了自己的研究类型1型糖尿病
differentiated cell of our body so in 致力于解决这个问题，并取得了显着进步
differentiated cell of our body so in the first part of the series of lectures 在过去的二十年中，他做了什么
the first part of the series of lectures 他从人类胚胎干细胞开始，但随着研究人员
the first part of the series of lectures I'd like to concentrate on embryonic 并产生诱导性多能干细胞，他也曾使用诱导性多能性
I'd like to concentrate on embryonic 干细胞，现在对胰腺有了足够的了解
I'd like to concentrate on embryonic stem cells an induced pluripotent stem 发展，然后他可以通过单个步骤哄这些细胞
stem cells an induced pluripotent stem 一个能够产生胰腺β细胞的细胞
stem cells an induced pluripotent stem cells and other applications to basic 在1型糖尿病中退化，并且在引入糖尿病时显着
cells and other applications to basic 糖尿病小鼠他能够证明这些诱导的多能干细胞
cells and other applications to basic science medicine and the pharmaceutical 衍生的β胰岛细胞不仅可以存活，而且基本上具有
science medicine and the pharmaceutical 适当调节葡萄糖的能力取得了重大突破，但我们仍然
science medicine and the pharmaceutical industry 留下了一些糖尿病方面的问题和挑战，因为作为科学家
industry 正在开发培养越来越多的胰岛胰岛细胞
industry so where do embryonic stem cells come 其他科学家开始意识到胰腺1型糖尿病
so where do embryonic stem cells come 主要源于自身免疫疾病，而自身免疫细胞
so where do embryonic stem cells come from if we go to the early developing 患者的免疫细胞基本上在攻击自己的β细胞
from if we go to the early developing 因此，即使我们生成了一系列的β胰岛细胞，除非我们克服了
from if we go to the early developing embryo the blastocyst that's just a few 自身免疫攻击的问题那些细胞仍将受到相同的
embryo the blastocyst that's just a few 1型糖尿病患者的发作类型
embryo the blastocyst that's just a few days old it consists of several hundred 克服的障碍，但我认为这些进步开始为您说明
days old it consists of several hundred 这个过程涉及多少步骤，但前进的方向是什么
days old it consists of several hundred cells at the most and at this point the 科学家们已经做出了希望，您将开始理解为什么
cells at the most and at this point the 事实证明，将这些类型的技术发展到药物的使用
cells at the most and at this point the blastocyst 涉及许多步骤，而且似乎对于公众来说是如此缓慢，所以可以
blastocyst 在科学家改进这些各种不同的同时进行
blastocyst has a group of cells which are called 技术和国家安全诱导型多能干细胞疗法
has a group of cells which are called 进展良好，开发治疗药物还有很多工作要做
has a group of cells which are called inner cell mass cells and those are the 遗传变性疾病的体外帕金森氏病亨廷顿氏病
inner cell mass cells and those are the 疾病心肌病突然猝死综合症阿尔茨海默氏病
inner cell mass cells and those are the cells that develop into the fetus or the 糖尿病肌营养不良症培养诱导多能干的能力
cells that develop into the fetus or the 细胞并通过基因操作使其类似于这些类型的疾病
cells that develop into the fetus or the embryo the surrounding cells the single 突然之间，科学家们现在有了真正研究这些类型的第一能力
embryo the surrounding cells the single 培养皿中疾病的确定性肯定会导致新的疾病
embryo the surrounding cells the single layer of cells that surround the inner 并在未来改进疗法，以便一旦科学家能够获得正确的选择
layer of cells that surround the inner 诱导的多能干细胞产生的细胞类型，然后可以将其用于
layer of cells that surround the inner cell mass are called the trophectoderm 毒品筛查，在这种情况下有效地是我的同事劳伦斯·都铎
cell mass are called the trophectoderm 再次能够像我现在所展示的那样衍生出皮质神经元
cell mass are called the trophectoderm the trophectoderm is going to develop 测试它们在鼠脑中的活性，也可以用于
the trophectoderm is going to develop 活动屏幕，用于开发用于治疗各种疾病的新药
the trophectoderm is going to develop into the fetal support tissue for the 不同的变性疾病和遗传疾病，所以这些都是进步
into the fetal support tissue for the 对于未来，我认为这对于基础科学而言确实是一个令人兴奋的时刻
into the fetal support tissue for the embryo so those cells do not give rise 对于转化科学
embryo so those cells do not give rise 您
embryo so those cells do not give rise to any part of the embryo but basically