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two world wars tore the heart out of the
20th century
they are a rent in the fabric of history
the first war set the stage for the
second in many ways
through ill-considered borders economic
burdens
national resentment a prescription
for reckless dictators and an impossible
peace
[Music]
weather action against hitler in march
1936
when he sent troops into the rhineland
would have ended or merely postponed his
ambition
can never be known the consequences of
the failure to act
are well known
the re-militarization of the rhineland
gives the national socialist
state and hitler a set of resources
that make them a much more formidable
foe you know the rhine
and and the territory alongside it is
really
key with his usual and peculiar concern
for legitimacy
hitler put his action in the rhineland
to a plebiscite
99 approved
in explaining to the parliament why the
british did nothing
anthony eden the foreign secretary said
it is the appeasement of europe as a
whole
that we have constantly before us and
there
he had let loose a word that would be
mocked misunderstood
and vilified for generations to come
the militarization of the rhineland
seemed to the british
to be a case of german troops marching
onto german soil
lord lothian comfortingly remarked that
the germans were
only going into their own back garden
but he was not looking at the map and so
failed to realize
what a blow this was for france whose
eastern frontier
was suddenly exposed the incident which
really crystallized i think people's
view was the the reoccupation of the
rhineland
and it was perfectly clear that the
british were not going to respond and
nor were the french
to this flagrant breach of their sigh
and of the treaty of meccano
france was hamstrung in what actions she
could take to meet the new threat
between may 35 and june 36
as much as 13 million francs was
exported from france
speculators thus denied the french
government the legitimacy of true
political independence
mr sarah's government resigns and the
first 100
socialist premier takes office in france
amid a fever of strikes
when leon bloom announced his popular
front government
on june the fifth a deputy from the
adesh could only
marvel who would have believed
xavier asked that this old gallo roman
country
would be governed by a jew
the newspaper action 4 says habitually
referred to leon bloom as
the circumcised narnae he represented a
constituency in
arbonne
on june the 27th president roosevelt
accepted the nomination of his party for
reelection
and so i accept
the commission you attended me i
joined with you
[Applause]
to some generations much is given he
said
of other generations much is expected
this generation of americans has a
rendezvous with destiny
his words carried a far greater truth
than even he imagined
the 1936 election did more than return
roosevelt
as one of his aides remarked it all but
crowned him
if you just went by the newspapers of
the 30s
you would have thought roosevelt is
going to lose
because they were staunchly republican
roosevelt understands that he says i
can't
change what the newspapers are going to
say but i can command
the radio roosevelt's opposition through
1936
came from the conservatively weighted
supreme court
which in judgment after judgment struck
down
every major new deal initiative
whether help for agriculture the
prohibition of child labour
or restructuring the bituminous coal
industry
the democratic administration and the
congress made a gallant sincere effort
to raise wages
to reduce ours to abolish child labor
and to eliminate unfair trade practices
you know
who assumed the power to veto and did
veto
that program
the angry president's reputation was
solid
his agenda crippled when one justice
owen roberts possibly sensing the
meaning behind roosevelt's language
tilted the majority in favor of progress
the necessity of adopting fdr's
contentious court reform strategy passed
this new deal endures and it puts in
place
a different infrastructure for the
central government it makes it much more
of a player in
welfare industrial relations
it extends its influence over other
areas this becomes transformative
in the relationship of government to
citizenry
there were no such checks and balances
on stalin's assault on his people
it has been said that the purges
launched in 1936
were the stalinist version of civil war
because patronage played such an
important part of getting anything done
in the soviet system
the reason why this process becomes so
murderous is because once you start
pulling out one leader
you then have to pull out what the
contemporaries would have called their
tail
the patrons the people their clients the
people that put in various positions
in 1936 bukharin the dining of the party
according to lenin but now about to face
one of stalin's executioners
said that stalin was unhappy at not
being able to convince
everyone himself included that he is
greater than everyone
i think stalin enjoyed the trappings of
power i mean he always said you know i'm
very modest i don't want to fuss made of
me
but he let it happen you know he let the
airplanes fly with banners over
red square in moscow at the time of his
birthday you know he let his picture be
everywhere
and he kept on saying rather modestly
well it's only because the people need
to identify with someone i don't really
like it
well i think people get to enjoy power
[Music]
when under the heavy impact of the great
depression that had started in 1929
the tide began to turn away from
democracy
it did so forcefully in japan
anticipating all-out war following the
army's provocation of the manchurian
incident
the army and navy resisted towing the
line drawn by party politicians
and strongly opposed further development
of party politics
they undertook an unabashed propaganda
campaign
aimed at turning the people against
party-led government
in the 1930s you get this concept of the
greater east asian co-prosperity sphere
whereby japan sees itself as controlling
areas which can then provide it
with the raw materials and some some of
the energy that it needs and in return
they will
export finished goods in china
in december gumming tang leader chiang
kai-shek
was kidnapped by two of his own generals
the xi
and incident following negotiations he
was released
having agreed that he would stop
fighting the communists
and join them in resisting the japanese
within months the japanese would launch
a full-scale invasion
what's more pluralism there was more
opportunity for people to debate new
ideas
both about how the war should be fought
but also about the kind of society
that would be constructed after the war
was over
in those terms the japanese invasion was
one of the most profound
political shocks to china of the entire
modern era
[Applause]
in 1936 john maynard keynes published
the general theory of employment
interest and money
which buried the sacred cow on the
balance budget
in 1936 according to george orwell
history stopped
h.g wells wrote things to come in 1936
the heroine in graham greene's a gun for
sale declared
men were fighting beasts they needed war
orwell
is dying but it isn't going to die in
its bed
hey the threat of german nationalism
which britain and france appeased is
portrayed often
as the only disruptive issue which those
countries faced
had it been perhaps adolf hitler would
have been dealt with differently
but it was not italy
spain japan india egypt palestine iraq
syria and soviet union a constellation
of issues
confronted these two democracies
[Music]
one which they sought to tackle through
a conference in brussels
was japan's invasion of china
what you've got by 1937 is you've got
some willingness
on the part of both of the chinese
communists and
the gourmet nationalists to work
together to try and
save china now that's a threat to japan
a weak china is much less of a threat to
japan than a potentially strong china
[Music]
japan's defense budget had risen from
465 million yen in 1931
to over 1 billion in 1935
and 3 billion by 1937
troops and more troops are marching in
the east and still the world is
wondering
must the mastery of china be decided by
open war
world war ii broke out on the 7th of
july 1937.
this is not a date that european
historians generally attribute to this
event
but i think there is a very strong case
that actually the second world war began
in asia and particularly with shooting
between
locally garrisoned chinese and japanese
troops at a bridge called lugochao
known in the west as the marco polo
bridge
there is skirmishing here and there and
the tenseness of civilians wait and
soldiers watch
does each dawn bring the storm nearer or
will it die away beyond the horizon
[Music]
this statement that now we
chinese people as a nation we need to
unite together
despite the class despite where we're
from
and now we need to fight against the
enemy from the outside
i think that was definitely a turning
moment chinese defenders give themselves
up
so the defending position is taken and
the soldiers of japan
march on
on november the 15th 1937
the nine power conference adjourned
its declaration rejected japan's
euphemistic characterization
of its invasion of china
noting the reality and believing that
the declaration described
the essential realities of the situation
which was that japan had launched an
unprovoked
undeclared full-scale invasion of china
the brussels signatories admitted to
finding it difficult to understand
japan's persistent refusal to discuss
a way forward and with that
they all went home
the onset of full-scale war with china
some say to some extent it's a cock-up
you know
they don't bring it under control
by the late 1930s what you've got is a
china that is
increasingly trying to unify itself
the potential for conflict was always
there
if you have troops on the ground on both
sides
the potential for conflict is there
[Music]
it seems incredible viewed through our
end of the telescope
that the british foreign office in march
1937
was suggesting that a general settlement
with hitler
was still a possibility
perhaps in exchange for the restoration
of former german colonies
cameroon and togoland
but british optimism arose from a keen
awareness of deficiencies
the annual output per blast furnace in
the british steel industry
had increased from 30 000 tons in 1913
to 83 000 tons in 1937
it was not enough by then
the figure for germany was 125
000 tons for the usa 210
000
in may neville chamberlain entered
downing street
as prime minister he was 68
and he faced a threatening world peopled
by
such characters as he had never known
parodied as an umbrella twirling fool he
was able to pursue his policy of
appeasement
not because he was a weak prime minister
but because
he was a strong one who controlled his
cabinet with autocratic firmness
you know he was not the naive wide-eyed
idiot that some people portray him as
he didn't trust hitler he was trying to
get the best deal
some in the parliament are thought of
had a better grip on the pulse of the
times
but that too is doubtful
the tories are concerned about the state
of britain's defenses and show their
sympathy with the views of mr winston
churchill
one of the chief advocates of increasing
the armed forces of the crown
it would be dangerous folly for the
british people to underrate the amazing
qualities of courage
comprehension self-control and
perseverance
which he exemplifies churchill wrote on
october the 10th
he was not of course describing
chamberlain or hitler
he was talking about mussolini
churchill's been portrayed as a sort of
wine bibing liberal democrat in fact
he was a whiskey sloshing
tory thon and that's just what we needed
where
hitler was concerned he was prepared to
stand up to it and he he was
unintimidated by the menace
it was a very challenging time for
would-be judges of character
lord halifax had met hitler and his
impression of the man
he wrote was that he was very sincere
[Music]
stalin's russia on the other hand lord
halifax considered to be
the antichrist
[Music]
a man with a less church-bound
manichaean view
might have reached out and done some
good in pre-war diplomacy
he might as british foreign secretary
have tested foreign minister
lithuano's suggestion of a british
french soviet accord
in defense of czechoslovakia
[Music]
he might have but he did not and in
march
the air raid sirens were tested for the
first time in london
and the city's gas mask depot was opened
people saw what was happening in
manchuria in abyssinia
in spain so they knew what aerial
bombardment meant they knew
that this would be a war not of
combatants but a war on the
non-combatants this would be a war
against civilians
carry your gas mask because you never
know where you'll need it
certainly an excellent way of getting to
know your respirator but maybe it's not
so good a way of getting to know your
partner
[Music]
it was a time for governments to prepare
their people
in 1937 the japanese ministry of
education
issued a text titled cardinal principles
of the national polity
this was an official statement for use
in schools
it defined the japanese state as
aggressively nationalist imperialist
authoritarian non-individualistic
the 30s was a decade of reaction in
japan
reaction to individualism socialism
jazz reaction that reinforced the
pillars of
emperor nation tradition
the future the loudest voices argued
was polluting the national essence
what was needed was the establishment of
a new order
jin shitsujo of course
the last thing the voices wanted was for
the new
order to have anything new about it
in july the japanese parliament approved
a 2.5 billion yen rise
in military spending and mobilization
laws
that gave the now totalitarian state
control over the economy
when japan launched the full-scale
invasion of china
america remained docile the dominions
remain
markedly shy of contributing to the
defense of the region
and the british service chiefs told the
prime minister they could fight germany
and europe
and or mussolini in the mediterranean
and or japan in the far
east what they could not do was fight
all three
[Music]
what was neville chamberlain to do
what he did has become known as
appeasement
what japan did was vent its fury against
the chinese
who had not succumbed in a few weeks as
they expected
their aim was deadly and unrestricted
bombing of civilians became a japanese
trademark
[Music]
when we think about the experience that
we associate with the war in the west
even something as iconic as the blitz in
london we should remember that those
experiences
were not just shared in china but often
the chinese were there first
the atrocities inflamed the world
a gallup poll after the nan king
atrocity
found that 59 of americans supported
china
and 1 japan
irving hoffman filing from new york for
the hollywood reporter
in 1937 described the reaction to first
reports
of the japanese capture of nang king
the shots he said inspire hisses from
all
parts of the house and when a japanese
aviator
is shot to earth the house rocks with
applause
when people look today at newsreel
footage or photographs of the war in
china
in its first two or three years 1937-39
i think what might strike them is not so
much its strangeness
but its familiarity the city of
chongqing the temporary capital of china
being bombed at some seasons almost on a
daily basis
with incendiary devices dropped by
japanese planes
the digging of trenches in the streets
of shanghai during the desperate battle
for that city
in the summer and autumn of 1937.
the training and drilling of troops
often a very short notice in desperation
the sending of refugees from the
vulnerable cities
to the interior to the countryside
china's problem was that she lacked
organization
and most of all she lacked modern
weapons
in europe an undeclared race was on to
match the offensive capability of
potential enemies
and the emphasis was on air power
[Music]
in 1937 germany built 5606
aircraft the ussr
6033 great britain
2218 italy
1794
and france built 370.
france had poured a huge sum and all of
her hopes
into the defensive barrier called the
maginot line
the national line believed by the french
to be impregnable
they fondly think that this mighty
barrier of underground fortifications
makes them safe against german attack
many notables like premier de la dea
visit the fortifications
france deluded is magino minded
if war came in any other form or
trampled into any other part of france
there would be disaster and there was
[Music]
but there was always something about
france
that did not quite seem to have a grip
on the real reality
it was still the center of life and
letters the fashion capital in 1937
cristobal balanciaga the man chanel said
was the only couturier the rest of us
are just dressmakers
and dior acknowledged as the master
opened his salon
and as piers brendan put it
the frank was allowed to float and it
sank
molotov said of the great terror
we were driven in 1937 by the
consideration
that in the time of war we would not
have a fifth column
and the terror switched to maximum pitch
along with thousands of so-called kulaks
the landed but still impoverished class
of peasantry
42 000 ethnic germans
56 000 poles even
six thousand citizens of outer mongolia
had been shot
[Music]
an insignificant number compared to the
victims of the forced famine in the
ukraine
or the much worse that was to come
stalin had also purged the red army
killing 13 out of 15 army commanders
50 out of 57 corps commanders 154
out of 186 divisional commanders
and 36 000 other officers
of the 18-member supreme military soviet
five survived the 1937 purge
stalin probably was a monster right you
wouldn't be wanting to
invite him to your dinner parties but
stalin's historical reputation in russia
today
does rest on the fact that russia today
considers that there were
positive and popular achievements of
stalin
but if everyone is supposed to have
betrayed one
man asked author eugenia ginsburg
who spent nearly 20 years in the gulag
isn't it easier to think
he has betrayed them
on november the 22nd the chicago tribune
published a story filed from berlin it
said
a famous viennese specialist has
disclosed
what he claims is a record for going
through the spookiest
experience in modern doctor's practice
he was called to moscow to treat
dictator joseph starlin
but he declares that when he got there
he was confronted by six silent and
almost identical men
all wearing the same kind of moustache
as that worn by stalin
the specialist treated all six of them
for ten days
three times in succession he returned
from his third trip last month and still
does not know
which of his patience was stalin
[Music]
this was the absolute ruler of the ussr
[Applause]
in spain in march at the battle of
guadalajara
republican forces sent italian
formations into headlong retreat
when the italians were smashed
everything unflattering
that had ever been said about italian
soldiers was said again
foreign correspondent h.r knickerbocker
claimed
that they fled lock stock and barrel
organ
mussolini could hardly boast though it
would have been true
that amongst the victors of guadalajara
was the italian anti-fascist garibaldi
brigade
the strength of germany's condor legion
never exceeded 5 000 but its firepower
was greater than that of the combined
air forces of world war one
at 4 30 p.m on april the 26th 1937
its bombers arrived over guernica the
holy city of the basques
it is difficult to nominate the moment
when nazism first revealed what it would
devour
if ever it entered the arteries of
europe
but perhaps it was this action of which
hermann goering
said germany could not do otherwise as
we had nowhere else to try out our
machines
[Music]
in 1937 pablo picasso
poured his heart and outrage into one of
art's most
impassioned paintings picasso does seem
to have done something that has
endured and has still keeps a message
that we recognize and respond to today
its impact at the time was modest
it was exhibited in paris in 1937
in the spanish pavilion and people had
difficulty understanding it
they were crowds were more attracted by
duffy's
homage to electricity
on memorial day 1937 the last monday in
may
an unarmed and well-behaved march of
american strikers and their families
moved towards the republic steel plant
in chicago
the new deal didn't conquer unemployment
unemployment remained at a very high
level throughout the 1930s in the united
states
even in 1937 the best year of the 1930s
it was probably around about 10
of the workforce the striker's path was
blocked by
500 police whose captain yelled you
dirty sons of [ __ ]
this is as far as you go nine were
killed
more than a hundred wounded many shot in
the back
as exhibit 1463 at the senate committee
hearing
proved
on september the 12th in chicago fdr
delivered a speech calling on countries
to quarantine
the nations that were causing what the
president described as
international anarchy and instability
but who did that leave out
i have seen a war on
land and sea i have seen
blood running from the wounded i have
seen
men coughing out their gassed lungs
i have seen cities destroyed
i have seen children starving
i have seen the agony of mothers and
wives
i hate war
[Applause]
in india 1937 was the year when limited
reform
began to bring some indians into
government
the first elections were held in 1937
in india on this new constitutional
basis and it brought
congress governments into power in the
majority of the provinces
elsewhere the general trend seemed to be
retrogressive
terror was rampaging through spain
to the east new records in monstrosity
were being set in the soviet union
and in china a foreign nation was
pressing a full-scale invasion
[Music]
the history books say that the world war
started in 1939
some even say 1941 it's a matter of
perspective
[Applause]
on march the 16th the italians launched
an effectively unopposed air raid on
barcelona
that killed a thousand and wounded twice
that number
this will send up our stocks in germany
said canciano
they love total and ruthless war
in barcelona by then serving as the
republican capital
the death rate for children and the
elderly had doubled by 1938
[Music]
here are official pictures of italian
units in spain and members of a
contingent being decorated by the
insurgent general
very hush hush has been the attitude
over the presence of these foreign
volunteers
their numbers have never been published
on july the 18th the second anniversary
of the failed coup
the rebel government in burgos
proclaimed the elevation
to the dignity of captain general of the
army
among other titles of the most excellent
senor don francisco franco bahamunde
there are aspects of franco that go
beyond anything ruritanian that are pure
comedy
you know he's a man who believed in
alchemy thought he could resolve spain's
international like economic problems by
turning lead into gold
he believed that that powder could be
produced that when mixed with the water
of a particular river would turn into
gasoline
some of the things he says are seriously
comical
the significance of franco's appointment
would never be
lost on the spanish establishment which
would have recognized
captain general of the army as a rank
reserved for the spanish monarch
there's also a seriously terrifying side
of a man who has no compunction
about merging large numbers of his
compatriots
if we compare what is comparable a
higher percentage of the spanish
population was killed by franco then the
german population was killed by hitler
so i'm not a fan
on august the 1st the republican army of
the ebro
was ordered to go on to the defensive
and when at 4 30 a.m on november the
16th
the last survivors of the 35th division
we crossed the river
the army of the ebro had in any
meaningful sense
ceased to exist and so
if it had not already vanished had any
prospect of a military victory over the
nationalists
anywhere ever
by september only 7102 foreigners
were left in the much celebrated and
romanticized international brigades
[Music]
they were to leave behind 9934 dead
and 7686 missing
as the republican forces prepared to
face the final and decisive rebel
assault on barcelona
they could count only 40 tanks
less than 100 field guns barely 50
serviceable aircraft
and only 40 000 rifles
[Music]
the 340 000 troops opposing them could
depend on the support of 300 tanks
1400 guns and 500 aircraft
december the 23rd was bright and cold
the nationalist offensive against
barcelona was launched
[Music]
[Applause]
under a february 26 byline aap
reported swear with us that austria
shall live forever
was the slogan of a torchlight
procession
in which 35 000 adherents of the
fatherland front
took part in one of the greatest
demonstrations in salzburg's history
the correspondent goes on to report that
nazis who refused to uncover when the
austrian anthem was sung
had their hats knocked off
announced a referendum that would ask
whether voters supported
a free and german independent and social
christian
and united austria
they would not be allowed to answer
[Music]
shushnik met hitler and caved into all
of his demands
but that did not deflect the fuhrer from
sending his troops across the border
as chancellor sneak of austria accepts
hitler's terms
and reforms his cabinet with austrian
nazis forgotten is the sensation of
germany's army changes
chancellor schuster surrender has set
the front page is a new puzzle
reflecting on his meeting said he felt
as though he had
met a madman who thinks he is god
the german invasion and forced
annexation of austria
the angelus took place in early march
germany got land and people and
austria's gold reserves
which were four times those of the reich
[Music]
following the angels and in the
aftermath of terror unleashed against
the jewish population
so many viennese jews committed suicide
that the city's gas company temporarily
suspended supply
to jewish households
two months after the angelus a football
match was scheduled for berlin
the german national team now included
several of the more powerful
austrian team which had defeated england
in 1936
they were now germans
the visiting team was england
the english team get the nazi salute
during the german national anthem
some claimed it was to make up for
british athletes
not having given the salute at the
berlin olympics
neville henderson britain's ambassador
to berlin
said that the nazis were looking for
victories to boost their regime
it is he said their way of claiming a
super race when golden seizes an
opportunity and makes it 6-3
[Music]
[Applause]
because of spain ethiopia and other
pigeon-chested posturing
italy between 1935 to 1938
spent almost as much of its gdp on
military matters
as germany and about double the
proportion expended by britain and
france
[Music]
between 1934 and 1940 military
and colonial outlays accounted for 51
of expenditure
[Music]
it is hard not to be reminded of
bismarck's bond mo
poor italy such a huge appetite
such poor teeth
in early may hitler with an entourage of
5 000
made his second visit to italy a very
different figure from the fresh minted
junior partner of his first tour
hitler makes his triumphant progress
towards rome at the specially built
austria station
the german dictator is met by the king
of italy only after royal greetings is
the mussolini handshake forthcoming
mussolini stands on the flagship to
welcome them as minister of marine
and it's on with the review
mussolini told gianno that he was sure
the fuhrer
to defeat his natural pala was wearing
rouge
with austria safely pocketed attention
turned to czechoslovakia
or at least its western region the
sedatin land
where lived three million ethnic germans
these are the people whose aspirations
are the present cause of the world's
jitters
sudeten germans whose desire to become
part of hitler's reich is so keen
that they leave their homeland to form a
free legion in bavaria
hitler of course was very clever at
sounding very moderate you know we just
want to protect our fellow germans
they're all as germans in austria why
shouldn't they join with us what about
national self-determination they want to
join with us
all those poor germans in the
sudetenland in the western part of
czechoslovakia and all they want to do
is join
with their fellow germans and if we get
that we're going to settle down we don't
want much more all we want is just to be
respected
he sounded very reasonable at times
particularly when he was talking to
foreign statesmen
off went the man with the umbrella and
the wing collar
bringing to the international crisis
according to the narrator of british
movietone news
his courageous genius
so what do we see about chamberlain we
see that he
is a man who is is very concerned with
being popular
with being liked with being loved with
being admired
this isn't about romance as such it's
about being the kind of paternalistic
figure
my policy has always been to try to
ensure
peace and the fearers ready acceptance
my suggestion
encourages me to hope that my visit to
him
will not be without result the czech
ambassador to britain
jan mazarik expressed himself fearful of
chamberlain's
senile ambition
the accomplished fact of nazis occupying
sudetenland has been another event
rendering negotiations difficult
the so-called sudeten free corps move
into ash a frontier town
without show of opposition pity the poor
sedations who do not profess nazism
communists or socialists perhaps they
are rounded up and taken away in lorries
czechoslovakia had been assembled from
bohemia
moravia parts of cilicia slovakia
and ruthenia the sub carpathian ukraine
it was enfolded on three sides by
germany
the handbook of the royal automobile
club was already describing both austria
and the sudan land as provinces of
greater germany
as chamberlain flew to bertis garden a
bumpy storm tossed flight of seven hours
the prime minister was 69.
as soon as hitler sees that old man said
mussolini
he will know that he has won the battle
there was also i think a an
extraordinary
willingness to believe that
somebody like chamberlain could really
you know deal
with with hitler of course it
parked his stem from chamberlain's
amazingly arrogant self-confidence
you know that he understood hitler and
and that hitler
liked him and that he could get on with
it in fact
you know hitler despised him
i've come back again rather quicker than
i expected
in a few days i'm going to have another
talk with her hitler
only this time he has told me that it is
his intention
to spare an old man another long journey
perhaps chamberlain's greatest mistake
was to think that he stood atop the
world's most powerful empire
and that was weight enough to press
against the dictators
[Music]
it was not and a greater effort an
effort
to bring the american and or soviets and
or the japanese into the process
may have had an effect
[Music]
when chamberlain agreed to go to munich
president roosevelt
sent him a cable which contained two
words good
man various forms the foreign office
doggerel
reportedly parodied the effort in
similar terms
if at first you don't appease when one
did he
fly fly fly again
when i come back i hope i may be able to
say
as hotspur says in henry iv
out of this metal danger we pluck this
flower
safety
[Applause]