1 00:00:02,490 --> 00:00:14,009 a familiar looking landscape rich with 2 00:00:08,220 --> 00:00:19,769 resources some believe Mars is the next 3 00:00:14,009 --> 00:00:22,730 home for Humanity a frontier of freedom 4 00:00:19,769 --> 00:00:22,730 and prosperity 5 00:00:23,270 --> 00:00:30,370 and a backup copy of civilization in 6 00:00:26,570 --> 00:00:30,370 case of disaster here on earth 7 00:00:30,789 --> 00:00:41,110 but the real Red Planet is a trickster 8 00:00:34,920 --> 00:00:45,129 with a long history of fooling us once 9 00:00:41,110 --> 00:00:50,229 thought a mythic place of exotic 10 00:00:45,129 --> 00:00:53,680 intelligent creatures the true Mars is a 11 00:00:50,229 --> 00:01:00,670 failing world much colder than 12 00:00:53,680 --> 00:01:06,939 Antarctica bone-dry with a harsh toxic 13 00:01:00,670 --> 00:01:08,810 landscape we may soon have the means to 14 00:01:06,939 --> 00:01:11,500 get there 15 00:01:08,810 --> 00:01:37,720 but will we live there 16 00:01:11,500 --> 00:01:37,720 [Music] 17 00:01:39,830 --> 00:01:46,189 for thousands of years Mars has been 18 00:01:43,140 --> 00:01:46,189 trying to tell us something 19 00:01:48,619 --> 00:01:56,299 Earth and Mars come closest together 20 00:01:50,960 --> 00:01:59,569 every 780 days or so called a planetary 21 00:01:56,299 --> 00:02:00,790 opposition it's the best time to observe 22 00:01:59,569 --> 00:02:02,390 the Red Planet 23 00:02:00,790 --> 00:02:06,050 [Music] 24 00:02:02,390 --> 00:02:11,000 which appears to slow down backtrack 25 00:02:06,050 --> 00:02:14,630 then speed forward again puzzled by this 26 00:02:11,000 --> 00:02:17,240 capricious motion Egyptians skywatchers 27 00:02:14,630 --> 00:02:21,310 personified members as a hawk headed 28 00:02:17,240 --> 00:02:24,610 human rated deity flying back and forth 29 00:02:21,310 --> 00:02:25,730 between the realms of the living and the 30 00:02:24,610 --> 00:02:29,090 dead 31 00:02:25,730 --> 00:02:29,090 [Music] 32 00:02:30,640 --> 00:02:39,040 Babylonian astrologers believe Mars to 33 00:02:33,800 --> 00:02:39,040 be a quick impulsive volatile God 34 00:02:41,420 --> 00:02:46,150 observing the moon pass in front of the 35 00:02:43,940 --> 00:02:48,709 Red Planet 36 00:02:46,150 --> 00:02:52,900 Aristotle deduces that Mars must be 37 00:02:48,709 --> 00:02:55,520 higher up and farther away than the moon 38 00:02:52,900 --> 00:02:59,330 but he would have been surprised by how 39 00:02:55,520 --> 00:03:02,080 much Mars is about two hundred times 40 00:02:59,330 --> 00:03:02,080 more distant 41 00:03:03,190 --> 00:03:06,900 chemical rockets that take around three 42 00:03:05,710 --> 00:03:10,170 days to get to the moon 43 00:03:06,900 --> 00:03:13,269 [Music] 44 00:03:10,170 --> 00:03:15,569 would take nearly seven months to reach 45 00:03:13,269 --> 00:03:15,569 Mars 46 00:03:18,040 --> 00:03:23,750 future nuclear thermal rockets could cut 47 00:03:22,239 --> 00:03:27,240 that to less than three months 48 00:03:23,750 --> 00:03:27,240 [Music] 49 00:03:27,280 --> 00:03:32,260 but even that is a very long time to 50 00:03:30,069 --> 00:03:37,470 spend confined in a spacecraft far from 51 00:03:32,260 --> 00:03:37,470 Earth even with comfort foods along 52 00:03:39,730 --> 00:03:45,980 and you can't just return home in a few 53 00:03:42,370 --> 00:03:48,610 hours if there's a problem 54 00:03:45,980 --> 00:03:51,340 [Music] 55 00:03:48,610 --> 00:04:00,430 astronauts in microgravity must exercise 56 00:03:51,340 --> 00:04:01,550 often bones become brittle heart muscle 57 00:04:00,430 --> 00:04:04,649 gets lazy 58 00:04:01,550 --> 00:04:04,649 [Music] 59 00:04:04,750 --> 00:04:17,200 how will Mars 1/3 gravity affect human 60 00:04:08,980 --> 00:04:19,420 health over the long term Greek 61 00:04:17,200 --> 00:04:22,240 mathematician and astrologer Claudius 62 00:04:19,420 --> 00:04:25,240 Ptolemy proposes that martyrs and the 63 00:04:22,240 --> 00:04:32,970 other four wandering stars must circle 64 00:04:25,240 --> 00:04:35,560 earth on a set of spheres around 850 ad 65 00:04:32,970 --> 00:04:39,790 Islamic astronomers begin to find 66 00:04:35,560 --> 00:04:42,040 problems with Ptolemies epicycles but it 67 00:04:39,790 --> 00:04:47,040 will take another seven centuries for 68 00:04:42,040 --> 00:04:50,020 the truth to surface in Europe in 1543 69 00:04:47,040 --> 00:04:53,730 Copernicus of Poland finally puts the 70 00:04:50,020 --> 00:04:53,730 Sun at the centre of motion 71 00:04:55,560 --> 00:05:01,490 now Mars looping behavior makes sense 72 00:04:58,470 --> 00:05:04,020 [Music] 73 00:05:01,490 --> 00:05:07,340 wealthy obsessive Danish astronomer 74 00:05:04,020 --> 00:05:12,000 Tycho Brahe he likes Copernicus geometry 75 00:05:07,340 --> 00:05:14,759 but can't quite let go of tunnel Tycho 76 00:05:12,000 --> 00:05:16,200 insists the mass of Earth is too lazy to 77 00:05:14,759 --> 00:05:19,760 orbit 78 00:05:16,200 --> 00:05:24,510 [Music] 79 00:05:19,760 --> 00:05:27,480 but massive world's do move in the early 80 00:05:24,510 --> 00:05:29,820 solar system Jupiter may have moved 81 00:05:27,480 --> 00:05:33,300 toward the Sun as far as Mars 82 00:05:29,820 --> 00:05:36,290 present-day orbit gobbling much of the 83 00:05:33,300 --> 00:05:40,050 inner solar nebulas dust and gas 84 00:05:36,290 --> 00:05:42,330 robbing Mars of its potential the 85 00:05:40,050 --> 00:05:47,130 stunted planet could grow to only about 86 00:05:42,330 --> 00:05:54,410 half Earth's diameter and barely 11% its 87 00:05:47,130 --> 00:05:56,760 mess Tycho is a compulsive data taker 88 00:05:54,410 --> 00:06:00,030 but it will fall to his research 89 00:05:56,760 --> 00:06:03,540 assistant Johannes Kepler to make sense 90 00:06:00,030 --> 00:06:07,250 of Tycho's numbers Kepler bets a friend 91 00:06:03,540 --> 00:06:11,310 he can plot Mars orbit in one week after 92 00:06:07,250 --> 00:06:13,820 five years and forty attempts he finds 93 00:06:11,310 --> 00:06:16,530 that all planetary orbits are elliptical 94 00:06:13,820 --> 00:06:21,140 putting the last nail in the coffin of 95 00:06:16,530 --> 00:06:21,140 Ptolemies crystal spheres within spheres 96 00:06:22,040 --> 00:06:28,620 as the early solar system evolves 97 00:06:25,370 --> 00:06:32,960 Jupiter and Saturn displaced billions of 98 00:06:28,620 --> 00:06:36,449 tons of icy rocks flinging them inward a 99 00:06:32,960 --> 00:06:42,020 deluge of debris lasting three million 100 00:06:36,449 --> 00:06:42,020 years the late heavy bombardment 101 00:06:44,430 --> 00:06:50,259 today the high country of Mars southern 102 00:06:47,680 --> 00:06:54,849 hemisphere has one very large hole 103 00:06:50,259 --> 00:06:57,189 punched in it the helis basin the third 104 00:06:54,849 --> 00:07:00,789 largest impact crater in the solar 105 00:06:57,189 --> 00:07:02,710 system its floor lies ten kilometers 106 00:07:00,789 --> 00:07:06,669 below the heights of a nearby south 107 00:07:02,710 --> 00:07:09,129 polar cap but Mars may have been hit by 108 00:07:06,669 --> 00:07:13,689 something even bigger near its opposite 109 00:07:09,129 --> 00:07:17,229 Pole as you fly from south to north the 110 00:07:13,689 --> 00:07:22,060 height of the landscape sinks seen here 111 00:07:17,229 --> 00:07:26,979 going from red and orange highlands down 112 00:07:22,060 --> 00:07:29,849 to green and blue valleys Mars whole 113 00:07:26,979 --> 00:07:35,529 northern hemisphere is a sunken ellipse 114 00:07:29,849 --> 00:07:39,159 draping over 40% of the planet if this 115 00:07:35,529 --> 00:07:40,840 is an impact site the incoming object 116 00:07:39,159 --> 00:07:42,810 would have been about the size of dwarf 117 00:07:40,840 --> 00:07:47,009 planet Pluto 118 00:07:42,810 --> 00:07:47,009 [Music] 119 00:07:47,139 --> 00:07:52,479 it would have totally remade Mars 120 00:07:50,249 --> 00:07:55,900 possibly shutting off its internal 121 00:07:52,479 --> 00:07:59,289 dynamo erasing its protective magnetic 122 00:07:55,900 --> 00:08:06,969 field and killing the chances for a 123 00:07:59,289 --> 00:08:09,759 life-sustaining atmosphere Galileo 124 00:08:06,969 --> 00:08:14,289 Galilei makes the first telescopic 125 00:08:09,759 --> 00:08:17,430 observation of Mars he says he's afraid 126 00:08:14,289 --> 00:08:17,430 it isn't round 127 00:08:18,090 --> 00:08:23,229 Francesco Fontana creates the first 128 00:08:20,740 --> 00:08:26,349 known drawing of the planet saying it 129 00:08:23,229 --> 00:08:30,129 looks like a very black pill probably 130 00:08:26,349 --> 00:08:32,769 due to flawed lenses in his spyglass the 131 00:08:30,129 --> 00:08:38,020 Dutch brothers Chris John and Constantin 132 00:08:32,769 --> 00:08:41,180 Huygens are innovating better optics 133 00:08:38,020 --> 00:08:43,730 Christian sketches an irregular mark on 134 00:08:41,180 --> 00:08:46,100 martyrs living in the wetlands of 135 00:08:43,730 --> 00:08:49,460 Holland he thinks it looks like a big 136 00:08:46,100 --> 00:08:54,050 balk so it becomes known as the Great 137 00:08:49,460 --> 00:08:57,200 Marsh syrtis major Huygens uses that 138 00:08:54,050 --> 00:09:00,700 shape to measure Mars day length finding 139 00:08:57,200 --> 00:09:03,800 it to be about the same as earth's 140 00:09:00,700 --> 00:09:08,270 giovanni domenico cassini refines that 141 00:09:03,800 --> 00:09:12,280 figure to 24 hours plus 40 minutes very 142 00:09:08,270 --> 00:09:15,620 close to what astronomers measure today 143 00:09:12,280 --> 00:09:19,280 he also logs the first observation of 144 00:09:15,620 --> 00:09:23,480 Mars south polar cap drawn here by his 145 00:09:19,280 --> 00:09:25,500 friend Huygens Cassini imagines that 146 00:09:23,480 --> 00:09:29,789 Mars is similar to earth 147 00:09:25,500 --> 00:09:29,789 [Music] 148 00:09:30,960 --> 00:09:39,060 three billion years ago Mars may indeed 149 00:09:35,470 --> 00:09:39,060 have been earth-like 150 00:09:41,819 --> 00:09:53,019 volcanoes building the atmosphere steam 151 00:09:47,230 --> 00:09:55,540 and mist and flowing water filling early 152 00:09:53,019 --> 00:10:02,559 oceans with more fluid than the Arctic 153 00:09:55,540 --> 00:10:07,449 Ocean on earth the first Mars rover 154 00:10:02,559 --> 00:10:09,269 little Sojourner the Pathfinder lands in 155 00:10:07,449 --> 00:10:11,020 the outflow of what must have been 156 00:10:09,269 --> 00:10:17,840 cataclysmic flood 157 00:10:11,020 --> 00:10:22,070 [Music] 158 00:10:17,840 --> 00:10:28,880 the Mars exploration Rovers Spirit and 159 00:10:22,070 --> 00:10:28,880 Opportunity find stacked strata of rock 160 00:10:29,360 --> 00:10:35,779 laid down by flowing water over 161 00:10:31,880 --> 00:10:38,930 thousands of years and little rounded 162 00:10:35,779 --> 00:10:42,500 iron-rich concretions nicknamed 163 00:10:38,930 --> 00:10:47,540 blueberries that formed in cavities of 164 00:10:42,500 --> 00:10:51,890 silt under salty water but is there any 165 00:10:47,540 --> 00:10:59,000 water near the surface of modern Mars in 166 00:10:51,890 --> 00:11:01,240 2008 NASA's Phoenix finds evidence soft 167 00:10:59,000 --> 00:11:04,430 landing in the high northern latitudes 168 00:11:01,240 --> 00:11:09,230 it's rocket plumes blow away surface 169 00:11:04,430 --> 00:11:11,209 dust exposing some white material the 170 00:11:09,230 --> 00:11:16,600 little probe digs a shallow trench 171 00:11:11,209 --> 00:11:18,840 revealing more it disappears in a day 172 00:11:16,600 --> 00:11:20,700 proving it was water ice 173 00:11:18,840 --> 00:11:23,880 [Music] 174 00:11:20,700 --> 00:11:29,810 and on the Landers legs drops of liquid 175 00:11:23,880 --> 00:11:33,860 appear then change the Mars Science Lab 176 00:11:29,810 --> 00:11:36,600 Curiosity rolls through dry stream beds 177 00:11:33,860 --> 00:11:40,500 between the banks of ancient water 178 00:11:36,600 --> 00:11:44,400 courses and across fans at the mouths of 179 00:11:40,500 --> 00:11:48,390 long-dead rivers the robot geologist 180 00:11:44,400 --> 00:11:51,980 sees a range of layered landscapes each 181 00:11:48,390 --> 00:11:56,270 was built by episodes of flowing mud 182 00:11:51,980 --> 00:11:56,270 with dry times in between 183 00:11:57,649 --> 00:12:02,800 today's Mars seems a lifeless desert 184 00:12:03,490 --> 00:12:19,540 a lonely landscape crying out for 185 00:12:09,790 --> 00:12:24,119 company Elon Musk's space exploration 186 00:12:19,540 --> 00:12:27,160 company hopes to end Mars long isolation 187 00:12:24,119 --> 00:12:30,009 SpaceX begins building a constellation 188 00:12:27,160 --> 00:12:34,929 of satellites eventually numbering 189 00:12:30,009 --> 00:12:40,509 almost 12,000 orbiting unusually close 190 00:12:34,929 --> 00:12:46,300 to earth to move data much faster than 191 00:12:40,509 --> 00:12:50,579 today's wired internet and to raise 192 00:12:46,300 --> 00:12:50,579 money for making life multiplanetary 193 00:12:53,790 --> 00:13:00,279 though christiaan huygens has died his 194 00:12:57,220 --> 00:13:02,939 final book cosmos the arrows will excite 195 00:13:00,279 --> 00:13:05,579 future generations 196 00:13:02,939 --> 00:13:09,720 Huygens argues that the moon and planets 197 00:13:05,579 --> 00:13:09,720 Harbor intelligent beings 198 00:13:10,730 --> 00:13:16,960 [Music] 199 00:13:24,100 --> 00:13:29,480 but do the other planetary worlds of our 200 00:13:26,840 --> 00:13:36,290 solar system truly have what it takes to 201 00:13:29,480 --> 00:13:41,950 be habitable the moon is rich in 202 00:13:36,290 --> 00:13:41,950 aluminum titanium silicon and magnesium 203 00:13:42,700 --> 00:13:51,400 asteroids add carbon cobalt platinum 204 00:13:46,600 --> 00:13:51,400 molybdenum nickel and other elements 205 00:13:52,420 --> 00:14:01,340 Mars has all of these plus abundant iron 206 00:13:57,110 --> 00:14:07,220 and many other metals especially near 207 00:14:01,340 --> 00:14:11,510 its enormous volcanoes but the key is 208 00:14:07,220 --> 00:14:16,700 water it can be split to make breathable 209 00:14:11,510 --> 00:14:19,030 oxygen and hydrogen fuel the Mars 2020 210 00:14:16,700 --> 00:14:22,100 Rover will test this idea 211 00:14:19,030 --> 00:14:26,210 it'll breathe in carbon dioxide and 212 00:14:22,100 --> 00:14:28,100 electro chemically break out oxygen to 213 00:14:26,210 --> 00:14:33,350 see if rocket propellant and life 214 00:14:28,100 --> 00:14:35,690 support can be made on Mars water from 215 00:14:33,350 --> 00:14:38,720 beneath the surface and carbon dioxide 216 00:14:35,690 --> 00:14:42,980 from its atmosphere can be rearranged to 217 00:14:38,720 --> 00:14:45,500 make methane and oxygen burn the methane 218 00:14:42,980 --> 00:14:47,890 using that oxygen and you can launch 219 00:14:45,500 --> 00:14:50,620 rockets 220 00:14:47,890 --> 00:14:52,450 make that propellant on Mars and you can 221 00:14:50,620 --> 00:14:56,320 drop the cost of getting back to Earth 222 00:14:52,450 --> 00:14:59,440 by a factor of at least five exactly 223 00:14:56,320 --> 00:15:00,540 what SpaceX has committed itself to do 224 00:14:59,440 --> 00:15:04,120 [Music] 225 00:15:00,540 --> 00:15:06,730 to conjure up space-based civilization 226 00:15:04,120 --> 00:15:11,230 launched only what you need to live off 227 00:15:06,730 --> 00:15:18,370 the land tools and talent and factories 228 00:15:11,230 --> 00:15:21,300 and power generators if everything for 229 00:15:18,370 --> 00:15:23,980 space has to be built in pieces on earth 230 00:15:21,300 --> 00:15:28,029 then trucked up from the bottom of our 231 00:15:23,980 --> 00:15:30,760 deep gravity well and tediously fit 232 00:15:28,029 --> 00:15:37,000 together on orbit we'll never get 233 00:15:30,760 --> 00:15:39,459 anywhere Giacomo Filippo morality 234 00:15:37,000 --> 00:15:45,430 guesses that dark rings around Mars 235 00:15:39,459 --> 00:15:48,670 poles might be melted material could the 236 00:15:45,430 --> 00:15:51,640 poles be ice caps 237 00:15:48,670 --> 00:15:55,030 80 years later Friedrich Wilhelm 238 00:15:51,640 --> 00:15:58,870 Herschel declares yes Mars poles are 239 00:15:55,030 --> 00:16:03,220 water ice and he thinks the broad dark 240 00:15:58,870 --> 00:16:05,230 equatorial patches are oceans the large 241 00:16:03,220 --> 00:16:08,920 syrtis major feature has come to be 242 00:16:05,230 --> 00:16:10,660 called the hourglass see Herschel and 243 00:16:08,920 --> 00:16:13,120 his contemporaries dream of what it 244 00:16:10,660 --> 00:16:16,110 might be like to sail these waters 245 00:16:13,120 --> 00:16:19,150 [Music] 246 00:16:16,110 --> 00:16:24,250 Mars may have lost its oceans long 247 00:16:19,150 --> 00:16:27,400 before life on earth emerged the 248 00:16:24,250 --> 00:16:30,430 northern desert lowlands the flattest 249 00:16:27,400 --> 00:16:34,090 terrain on any planet or moon look like 250 00:16:30,430 --> 00:16:38,470 the floor of an ancient sea up to four 251 00:16:34,090 --> 00:16:45,300 kilometers deep Mars polar ocean may 252 00:16:38,470 --> 00:16:47,940 have covered 1/3 of the planet in 1785 253 00:16:45,300 --> 00:16:50,860 Herschel speculates that Martians 254 00:16:47,940 --> 00:16:53,400 probably enjoy a situation similar to 255 00:16:50,860 --> 00:16:53,400 our own 256 00:16:53,550 --> 00:17:02,580 but he reports Mars atmosphere must be 257 00:16:56,790 --> 00:17:06,170 very thin it is thin the planet is 258 00:17:02,580 --> 00:17:12,720 enveloped in sparse carbon dioxide 259 00:17:06,170 --> 00:17:16,970 there's very little water in the air but 260 00:17:12,720 --> 00:17:21,809 there's plenty not far under the crust 261 00:17:16,970 --> 00:17:24,819 Mars also makes tiny amounts of methane 262 00:17:21,809 --> 00:17:26,740 which could be coming from hot geology 263 00:17:24,819 --> 00:17:29,590 [Music] 264 00:17:26,740 --> 00:17:34,000 but those methane levels seem to bloom 265 00:17:29,590 --> 00:17:37,030 in certain seasons and that has a lot of 266 00:17:34,000 --> 00:17:44,080 experts wondering might there be life 267 00:17:37,030 --> 00:17:46,750 below the surface Johann 268 00:17:44,080 --> 00:17:49,540 hieronymus shredder believes Mars has no 269 00:17:46,750 --> 00:17:53,110 solid surface at all just drifting 270 00:17:49,540 --> 00:17:55,240 clouds and Misty Rain he thinks he sees 271 00:17:53,110 --> 00:17:59,590 sweeping atmospheric changes right 272 00:17:55,240 --> 00:18:02,800 before his eyes Schroders shifting scene 273 00:17:59,590 --> 00:18:05,380 probably is due to an atmosphere but 274 00:18:02,800 --> 00:18:09,600 it's the unstable air of Earth above his 275 00:18:05,380 --> 00:18:09,600 telescope that has spoiled his seeing 276 00:18:09,960 --> 00:18:16,050 the true story of Mars atmosphere is 277 00:18:13,000 --> 00:18:16,050 becoming clearer 278 00:18:16,430 --> 00:18:23,110 go back at least a billion years 279 00:18:20,440 --> 00:18:27,450 intense ultraviolet radiation from the 280 00:18:23,110 --> 00:18:32,110 Sun and the sputtering solar wind are 281 00:18:27,450 --> 00:18:34,740 bombarding the small planet with its low 282 00:18:32,110 --> 00:18:34,740 gravity 283 00:18:35,240 --> 00:18:41,570 and frail global magnetic field Mars 284 00:18:39,559 --> 00:18:44,020 can't hold on to its protective gas 285 00:18:41,570 --> 00:18:44,020 envelope 286 00:18:44,210 --> 00:18:57,330 most of its air and much of its water 287 00:18:48,920 --> 00:19:00,830 are lost to space back in 1830 however 288 00:18:57,330 --> 00:19:03,870 none of this tragic history is yet known 289 00:19:00,830 --> 00:19:06,810 Johann Heinrich modeler and vilhelm 290 00:19:03,870 --> 00:19:11,040 beard make the first truly accurate Mars 291 00:19:06,810 --> 00:19:13,170 maps they placed their longitude zero 292 00:19:11,040 --> 00:19:18,240 line through a feature that will later 293 00:19:13,170 --> 00:19:22,390 be named sinus Meridiani Meridian Bay 294 00:19:18,240 --> 00:19:22,390 [Music] 295 00:19:23,930 --> 00:19:30,140 the Mars rover Opportunity is working 296 00:19:27,360 --> 00:19:30,140 there right now 297 00:19:38,590 --> 00:19:46,690 in images Mars looks like a picturesque 298 00:19:41,649 --> 00:19:49,899 desert it's easy to imagine yourself 299 00:19:46,690 --> 00:19:55,840 standing there gazing at the intricately 300 00:19:49,899 --> 00:19:58,389 weathered rocks nearly everywhere you 301 00:19:55,840 --> 00:20:00,629 look you see evidence of past liquid 302 00:19:58,389 --> 00:20:00,629 water 303 00:20:03,600 --> 00:20:09,030 though there are no oceans today there's 304 00:20:06,480 --> 00:20:13,340 plenty of ice the Mars Reconnaissance 305 00:20:09,030 --> 00:20:17,160 Orbiter records eroded cliff faces 306 00:20:13,340 --> 00:20:21,620 exposing compacted water ice in some 307 00:20:17,160 --> 00:20:24,530 places more than 100 meters thick on 308 00:20:21,620 --> 00:20:26,940 passes over the poles 309 00:20:24,530 --> 00:20:31,530 Amaro's radar reveals up to two 310 00:20:26,940 --> 00:20:33,770 kilometers of ice it seems to have been 311 00:20:31,530 --> 00:20:41,640 laid down in layers 312 00:20:33,770 --> 00:20:41,640 [Music] 313 00:20:43,530 --> 00:20:51,870 does Mars climate cycle between warm and 314 00:20:46,980 --> 00:20:56,370 cool orbiting spacecraft have watched 315 00:20:51,870 --> 00:21:01,320 dark streaks appear over time usually on 316 00:20:56,370 --> 00:21:05,330 the steeper slopes of craters they look 317 00:21:01,320 --> 00:21:05,330 just like desert gullies on earth 318 00:21:08,050 --> 00:21:12,720 the markings change with Mars seasons 319 00:21:15,140 --> 00:21:23,060 many researchers thought they might be 320 00:21:17,570 --> 00:21:25,040 flowing salty water new analysis 321 00:21:23,060 --> 00:21:30,070 suggests at least the larger ones are 322 00:21:25,040 --> 00:21:33,890 dry streams of rounded sand grains 323 00:21:30,070 --> 00:21:38,480 tumbling over one another flowing like 324 00:21:33,890 --> 00:21:45,080 liquid in the low gravity of Mars but 325 00:21:38,480 --> 00:21:47,220 the small ones seem truly wet another 326 00:21:45,080 --> 00:21:55,980 slippery Mars paradox 327 00:21:47,220 --> 00:21:59,350 [Music] 328 00:21:55,980 --> 00:22:01,990 astronomer Camille Flammarion picks up 329 00:21:59,350 --> 00:22:05,320 the intelligent alien torch and runs 330 00:22:01,990 --> 00:22:09,850 with it eventually publishing eight 331 00:22:05,320 --> 00:22:12,340 books on the topic the plurality of 332 00:22:09,850 --> 00:22:17,980 inhabited worlds becomes an all-time 333 00:22:12,340 --> 00:22:20,549 bestseller with the publication of 334 00:22:17,980 --> 00:22:23,230 Charles Darwin's origin of the species 335 00:22:20,549 --> 00:22:25,659 from a tree all has realized that 336 00:22:23,230 --> 00:22:27,909 differing conditions on various planets 337 00:22:25,659 --> 00:22:37,510 should cause creatures on them to be 338 00:22:27,909 --> 00:22:40,270 unlike those of Earth the building 339 00:22:37,510 --> 00:22:44,250 blocks of life are in fact plentiful on 340 00:22:40,270 --> 00:22:51,100 Mars curiosity has found abundant oxygen 341 00:22:44,250 --> 00:22:56,070 carbon nitrogen phosphorus and sulfur as 342 00:22:51,100 --> 00:22:56,070 well as complex organic macromolecules 343 00:22:56,739 --> 00:23:01,729 clay minerals would have filtered salts 344 00:22:59,690 --> 00:23:09,139 and harsh compounds from the primeval 345 00:23:01,729 --> 00:23:11,380 flowing waters many microbes now living 346 00:23:09,139 --> 00:23:14,690 on earth 347 00:23:11,380 --> 00:23:17,979 would likely have survived on early Mars 348 00:23:14,690 --> 00:23:17,979 [Music] 349 00:23:18,720 --> 00:23:25,280 but no photos fossils or chemical 350 00:23:21,780 --> 00:23:31,610 evidence of life as yet turned up 351 00:23:25,280 --> 00:23:34,560 [Music] 352 00:23:31,610 --> 00:23:37,380 the Vatican becomes concerned about the 353 00:23:34,560 --> 00:23:40,350 state of grace of the marshal's father 354 00:23:37,380 --> 00:23:42,810 Pietro Angelo secchi of the Roman 355 00:23:40,350 --> 00:23:45,630 College Observatory starts to charge 356 00:23:42,810 --> 00:23:49,290 where they might live it gives the 357 00:23:45,630 --> 00:23:52,890 hourglass sea a new name calling it the 358 00:23:49,290 --> 00:23:56,580 atlantic canal that word simply means 359 00:23:52,890 --> 00:24:00,210 channel say Qi intends no reference to 360 00:23:56,580 --> 00:24:02,370 intelligent design but his turn can a 361 00:24:00,210 --> 00:24:05,990 delay will cause much confusion in the 362 00:24:02,370 --> 00:24:08,910 coming decades over in England 363 00:24:05,990 --> 00:24:10,140 astronomer William Dawes is making Mars 364 00:24:08,910 --> 00:24:13,530 maps of his own 365 00:24:10,140 --> 00:24:15,690 he's extremely nearsighted but his 366 00:24:13,530 --> 00:24:19,800 charts are more detailed than any made 367 00:24:15,690 --> 00:24:22,740 before smelling a great story 368 00:24:19,800 --> 00:24:26,690 science writer Richard Anthony Procter 369 00:24:22,740 --> 00:24:29,819 blasts the Dawes maps out to the public 370 00:24:26,690 --> 00:24:29,819 [Music] 371 00:24:30,420 --> 00:24:38,310 the Suez Canal is completed in November 372 00:24:33,600 --> 00:24:41,400 of 1869 making news around the world the 373 00:24:38,310 --> 00:24:43,140 Panama Canal is being planned many 374 00:24:41,400 --> 00:24:46,410 people make a connection between the 375 00:24:43,140 --> 00:24:48,980 straight canal e on Mars Maps and these 376 00:24:46,410 --> 00:24:52,020 great works of engineering on earth 377 00:24:48,980 --> 00:24:55,200 there are in fact many ancient water 378 00:24:52,020 --> 00:24:59,270 channels all over Mars but there's no 379 00:24:55,200 --> 00:24:59,270 evidence of technology in their shapes 380 00:25:00,310 --> 00:25:07,450 Mars comes once more into opposition but 381 00:25:05,110 --> 00:25:11,080 this time many new telescopes are 382 00:25:07,450 --> 00:25:15,000 pointed at it one belongs to Nathaniel 383 00:25:11,080 --> 00:25:19,290 Greene on the island of Madeira an 384 00:25:15,000 --> 00:25:22,030 artist by day an astronomer by night 385 00:25:19,290 --> 00:25:26,500 Greene paints the most accurate Mars 386 00:25:22,030 --> 00:25:29,050 chart yet over in America the 387 00:25:26,500 --> 00:25:32,560 self-taught astronomer Asaph Hall sees 388 00:25:29,050 --> 00:25:36,940 something no one else has two tiny 389 00:25:32,560 --> 00:25:40,630 movements fobos and damos may be bits of 390 00:25:36,940 --> 00:25:44,350 Mars flung into orbit by giant impacts 391 00:25:40,630 --> 00:25:48,790 long ago or they may be asteroids 392 00:25:44,350 --> 00:25:52,090 captured by the planets gravity as Mars 393 00:25:48,790 --> 00:25:56,040 comes close within 56 million kilometers 394 00:25:52,090 --> 00:25:59,500 of Earth Giovanni Schiaparelli is ready 395 00:25:56,040 --> 00:26:02,890 though he like Dawes is nearsighted and 396 00:25:59,500 --> 00:26:05,080 colorblind chaparral II is able to 397 00:26:02,890 --> 00:26:07,380 extract more from the telescope than 398 00:26:05,080 --> 00:26:07,380 others 399 00:26:08,650 --> 00:26:14,380 heetu calls the lines he sees on Mars 400 00:26:11,500 --> 00:26:19,080 Canali and he gives them whimsical names 401 00:26:14,380 --> 00:26:24,130 from classical literature like Pyrrhus 402 00:26:19,080 --> 00:26:29,260 Cerberus and piri Phlegethon labels 403 00:26:24,130 --> 00:26:31,870 still used by Mars mappers today why are 404 00:26:29,260 --> 00:26:34,690 some Mars opposition's closer than 405 00:26:31,870 --> 00:26:37,810 others while Earth's orbit around the 406 00:26:34,690 --> 00:26:40,810 Sun is nearly circular Mars orbit is 407 00:26:37,810 --> 00:26:45,670 much more elliptical only Mercury's is 408 00:26:40,810 --> 00:26:49,300 more eccentric during Mars southern 409 00:26:45,670 --> 00:26:52,570 ottoman winter that hemisphere is tipped 410 00:26:49,300 --> 00:26:55,720 away from the Sun and the whole planet 411 00:26:52,570 --> 00:27:01,600 is farther away making those seasons 412 00:26:55,720 --> 00:27:03,940 longer and colder another close 413 00:27:01,600 --> 00:27:06,130 opposition and Schiaparelli comes to 414 00:27:03,940 --> 00:27:08,040 believe he's seen pairs of straight 415 00:27:06,130 --> 00:27:12,750 Canali 416 00:27:08,040 --> 00:27:12,750 [Music] 417 00:27:14,740 --> 00:27:19,999 Harvard College Observatory director 418 00:27:17,080 --> 00:27:22,669 William Henry Pickering declares the 419 00:27:19,999 --> 00:27:24,830 canals of Mars are only rendered visible 420 00:27:22,669 --> 00:27:33,879 by plants growing along their banks and 421 00:27:24,830 --> 00:27:36,080 the surrounding lap any science-based 422 00:27:33,879 --> 00:27:38,690 speculation about large engineering 423 00:27:36,080 --> 00:27:42,350 projects by smart Martians will die 424 00:27:38,690 --> 00:27:48,860 abruptly on the night of July 14th 1965 425 00:27:42,350 --> 00:27:52,369 as NASA's Mariner 4 flies by Mars in the 426 00:27:48,860 --> 00:27:55,890 probes 21 images Mars looks much more 427 00:27:52,369 --> 00:27:58,260 like the moon than the earth 428 00:27:55,890 --> 00:28:03,090 and worse Mariner can't find a 429 00:27:58,260 --> 00:28:05,760 protective magnetic field harsh solar 430 00:28:03,090 --> 00:28:11,070 wind and cosmic radiations scour the 431 00:28:05,760 --> 00:28:14,450 planet it's hard to imagine how even 432 00:28:11,070 --> 00:28:19,500 primitive plant life could survive here 433 00:28:14,450 --> 00:28:27,300 and water seems to have flowed only in 434 00:28:19,500 --> 00:28:29,280 the ancient past back in 1892 Camille 435 00:28:27,300 --> 00:28:32,220 Flammarion has filled his imaginary 436 00:28:29,280 --> 00:28:35,790 Martian canals with water speculating 437 00:28:32,220 --> 00:28:37,410 maybe the rectification of old rivers by 438 00:28:35,790 --> 00:28:40,680 the inhabitants for the purpose of 439 00:28:37,410 --> 00:28:42,840 general water distribution and the 440 00:28:40,680 --> 00:28:48,080 actual habitation of Mars by beings 441 00:28:42,840 --> 00:28:48,080 superior to our own is very probable 442 00:28:49,630 --> 00:28:57,390 Pickering adds fuel to flow Maryland's 443 00:28:52,210 --> 00:28:57,390 fire asserting that he has seen 40 lakes 444 00:28:58,620 --> 00:29:05,530 at about the same time a wealthy world 445 00:29:02,590 --> 00:29:08,380 traveling American diplomat is feeling 446 00:29:05,530 --> 00:29:12,340 like he needs a career change and a 447 00:29:08,380 --> 00:29:15,130 personal passion project Percival Lowell 448 00:29:12,340 --> 00:29:17,230 has read Flammarion books and he makes 449 00:29:15,130 --> 00:29:21,730 plans to look for Martians during the 450 00:29:17,230 --> 00:29:24,100 coming opposition of 1894 Pickering 451 00:29:21,730 --> 00:29:28,360 helps Lowell ring two telescopes on a 452 00:29:24,100 --> 00:29:31,030 hilltop in Flagstaff Arizona the new 453 00:29:28,360 --> 00:29:36,790 Lowell Observatory is trained on Mars 454 00:29:31,030 --> 00:29:39,730 all summer long at the telescope Lowell 455 00:29:36,790 --> 00:29:43,060 sees what he believes and sketches a 456 00:29:39,730 --> 00:29:45,570 complex irrigation system transporting 457 00:29:43,060 --> 00:29:51,250 billions of gallons of melted polar snow 458 00:29:45,570 --> 00:29:56,040 to equatorial desert oasis the irrigated 459 00:29:51,250 --> 00:29:56,040 agriculture projects of an advanced race 460 00:29:59,490 --> 00:30:05,529 but during the same opposition Edward 461 00:30:03,159 --> 00:30:07,600 Barnard wielding the California lick 462 00:30:05,529 --> 00:30:11,169 observatories larger refracting 463 00:30:07,600 --> 00:30:15,129 telescope cannot find a single straight 464 00:30:11,169 --> 00:30:17,169 line anywhere on Mars and when the licks 465 00:30:15,129 --> 00:30:19,990 William Campbell examines Mars with a 466 00:30:17,169 --> 00:30:24,999 spectroscope he sees not a trace of 467 00:30:19,990 --> 00:30:27,279 water in the atmosphere English 468 00:30:24,999 --> 00:30:29,470 astronomer Edward maunder demonstrates 469 00:30:27,279 --> 00:30:32,549 how straight lines on Mars could be 470 00:30:29,470 --> 00:30:32,549 optical illusions 471 00:30:35,450 --> 00:30:41,550 undeterred Percival Lowell Sprint's 472 00:30:38,490 --> 00:30:46,710 across America on a lecture to promoting 473 00:30:41,550 --> 00:30:49,410 his book named simply martyrs a story 474 00:30:46,710 --> 00:30:59,460 thirsty public buys his tales of Martian 475 00:30:49,410 --> 00:31:03,920 water works by the thousands the real 476 00:30:59,460 --> 00:31:03,920 Mars is a parched planet 477 00:31:04,500 --> 00:31:09,710 though tilted rocks tell us there were 478 00:31:06,900 --> 00:31:12,770 lakes here long ago 479 00:31:09,710 --> 00:31:15,950 with no liquid water to irrigate plants 480 00:31:12,770 --> 00:31:20,320 and no plants to hold the soil dust 481 00:31:15,950 --> 00:31:20,320 devils swirl across the barren terrain 482 00:31:28,280 --> 00:31:34,820 Curtin's of desiccated grit sweep up 483 00:31:31,580 --> 00:31:40,040 into the hazy sky from rugged Canyon 484 00:31:34,820 --> 00:31:45,280 cliffs sandy landslides garnished steep 485 00:31:40,040 --> 00:31:45,280 crater walls and clump on the floors 486 00:31:47,050 --> 00:31:53,240 Percival Lowell begins observing with an 487 00:31:49,730 --> 00:31:56,110 even bigger refractor but still cannot 488 00:31:53,240 --> 00:32:00,270 see his glaring error 489 00:31:56,110 --> 00:32:03,309 Lowell will carry on for 20 more years 490 00:32:00,270 --> 00:32:07,240 inventing over 450 canals with 491 00:32:03,309 --> 00:32:10,360 vegetation he pictures a desperate 492 00:32:07,240 --> 00:32:13,420 civilization bravely combating global 493 00:32:10,360 --> 00:32:17,670 climate change as their dying world 494 00:32:13,420 --> 00:32:17,670 cries to a planetary desert 495 00:32:24,810 --> 00:32:30,290 in fact Mars climate did change 496 00:32:27,960 --> 00:32:30,290 radically 497 00:32:33,549 --> 00:32:38,249 but it happened long before Lowell's 498 00:32:35,919 --> 00:32:38,249 time 499 00:32:40,590 --> 00:32:46,470 without a large moon to stabilize it 500 00:32:43,470 --> 00:32:49,169 Mars wobbles tens of degrees over 501 00:32:46,470 --> 00:32:52,740 hundreds of thousands of years much more 502 00:32:49,169 --> 00:32:55,830 radically than earth when Mars points a 503 00:32:52,740 --> 00:32:59,279 pole toward the Sun billions of tons of 504 00:32:55,830 --> 00:33:02,399 co2 are released unleashing a box of 505 00:32:59,279 --> 00:33:08,159 greenhouse warming melting subsurface 506 00:33:02,399 --> 00:33:15,809 ice flooding the planet HG Wells 507 00:33:08,159 --> 00:33:20,970 publishes War of the Worlds a dying race 508 00:33:15,809 --> 00:33:23,960 of Martians wants to conquer earth to 509 00:33:20,970 --> 00:33:23,960 make it more like Mars 510 00:33:24,280 --> 00:33:40,390 [Music] 511 00:33:36,000 --> 00:33:43,299 in 1976 earth will send two Viking 512 00:33:40,390 --> 00:33:46,020 landers not to subjugate but to 513 00:33:43,299 --> 00:33:46,020 investigate 514 00:33:51,930 --> 00:34:02,999 [Music] 515 00:33:59,749 --> 00:34:04,420 they will find very active intriguing 516 00:34:02,999 --> 00:34:07,480 surface chemistry 517 00:34:04,420 --> 00:34:10,489 [Music] 518 00:34:07,480 --> 00:34:13,569 but no obvious life 519 00:34:10,489 --> 00:34:13,569 [Music] 520 00:34:15,820 --> 00:34:18,999 [Music] 521 00:34:19,010 --> 00:34:25,139 but back in 1905 at Lowell Observatory 522 00:34:22,339 --> 00:34:26,500 Carl lamp 'land claims he's photographed 523 00:34:25,139 --> 00:34:32,490 thirty-eight canals 524 00:34:26,500 --> 00:34:35,620 [Music] 525 00:34:32,490 --> 00:34:37,720 Alfred Russel Wallace who originated the 526 00:34:35,620 --> 00:34:41,020 idea that natural selection drives 527 00:34:37,720 --> 00:34:43,720 evolution realizes that craters observed 528 00:34:41,020 --> 00:34:50,679 on Mars must be the impact sites of 529 00:34:43,720 --> 00:34:53,649 large meteorites Rovers opportunity and 530 00:34:50,679 --> 00:34:57,090 curiosity finds several small impactors 531 00:34:53,649 --> 00:34:57,090 sitting right on the surface 532 00:34:59,540 --> 00:35:06,890 [Music] 533 00:35:03,140 --> 00:35:10,099 these rocks from the sky tell a story of 534 00:35:06,890 --> 00:35:17,910 a planet with a thick atmosphere long 535 00:35:10,099 --> 00:35:21,030 ago at the muda Observatory near Paris 536 00:35:17,910 --> 00:35:26,970 Eugene and Tony Adi realizes there are 537 00:35:21,030 --> 00:35:29,670 no straight canals on mars american 538 00:35:26,970 --> 00:35:31,760 novelist edgar rice burroughs releases 539 00:35:29,670 --> 00:35:34,770 the first of his 11 volume tale 540 00:35:31,760 --> 00:35:40,580 depicting heroic john carter on a 541 00:35:34,770 --> 00:35:40,580 fictional Mars the desert planet Barsoom 542 00:35:41,570 --> 00:35:52,340 a century later Disney director Andrew 543 00:35:48,540 --> 00:35:52,340 Stanton will bring it to the screen 544 00:35:57,430 --> 00:36:02,140 curiosities Mars is a desert world too 545 00:36:06,089 --> 00:36:14,799 the rover tricks around a wide field of 546 00:36:09,369 --> 00:36:18,579 dark sand dunes rolling like waves on an 547 00:36:14,799 --> 00:36:19,950 ocean the sandy mounds slowly migrate 548 00:36:18,579 --> 00:36:28,390 across the landscape 549 00:36:19,950 --> 00:36:28,390 [Music] 550 00:36:28,640 --> 00:36:34,580 [Applause] 551 00:36:29,370 --> 00:36:34,580 [Music] 552 00:36:38,830 --> 00:36:43,910 Mount Wilson Observatory astronomers 553 00:36:41,840 --> 00:36:48,080 measure surface temperatures on Mars 554 00:36:43,910 --> 00:36:50,800 finding them to swing wildly they range 555 00:36:48,080 --> 00:36:53,869 from 15 degrees Celsius at midday to 556 00:36:50,800 --> 00:36:59,930 minus 85 degrees Celsius just before 557 00:36:53,869 --> 00:37:04,210 sunrise Russian filmmaker Yakov 558 00:36:59,930 --> 00:37:04,210 protozoan makes Aelita 559 00:37:07,170 --> 00:37:18,049 an earth man flies by rocket to lead a 560 00:37:14,099 --> 00:37:18,049 revolt against the rulers of Mars 561 00:37:20,420 --> 00:37:28,089 and win the love of the Martian Queen 562 00:37:22,880 --> 00:37:30,890 [Music] 563 00:37:28,089 --> 00:37:35,150 but the prospects for civilization on 564 00:37:30,890 --> 00:37:37,160 the planet grow dim as astronomer 565 00:37:35,150 --> 00:37:39,589 Walters Sydney Adams can find only 566 00:37:37,160 --> 00:37:45,170 vanishingly tiny quantities of oxygen 567 00:37:39,589 --> 00:37:48,410 and water in the Martian atmosphere at 568 00:37:45,170 --> 00:37:51,970 Yerkes Observatory 13 years later Gerard 569 00:37:48,410 --> 00:37:55,160 Kuiper detects abundant carbon dioxide 570 00:37:51,970 --> 00:38:00,589 rocket pioneer Wernher von Braun rights 571 00:37:55,160 --> 00:38:02,430 project Mars it's a sci-fi novel a full 572 00:38:00,589 --> 00:38:08,010 of factual engineering 573 00:38:02,430 --> 00:38:08,010 [Music] 574 00:38:09,079 --> 00:38:15,119 gray Bradbury's Martian Chronicles puts 575 00:38:12,480 --> 00:38:20,910 a human colony on Mars to escape a 576 00:38:15,119 --> 00:38:24,960 nuclear war devastated earth through the 577 00:38:20,910 --> 00:38:29,040 rocketship XM it's a stranded astronaut 578 00:38:24,960 --> 00:38:32,960 crew against Stone Age humanism remnants 579 00:38:29,040 --> 00:38:32,960 of a Martian global nuclear war 580 00:38:34,050 --> 00:38:47,849 [Music] 581 00:38:44,660 --> 00:38:57,450 the first thermonuclear bomb is tested 582 00:38:47,849 --> 00:39:00,780 in the same year von braun publishes das 583 00:38:57,450 --> 00:39:04,579 mars project a comprehensive technical 584 00:39:00,780 --> 00:39:07,320 workup for a large-scale space program 585 00:39:04,579 --> 00:39:10,280 that will become the blueprint for 586 00:39:07,320 --> 00:39:15,339 NASA's Mercury Gemini 587 00:39:10,280 --> 00:39:15,339 [Music] 588 00:39:15,930 --> 00:39:19,760 and Apollo projects 589 00:39:23,000 --> 00:39:30,890 in 1955 Paramount Pictures releases 590 00:39:27,020 --> 00:39:34,430 conquest of space it too is based on von 591 00:39:30,890 --> 00:39:35,900 braun's planetary plans I can give you a 592 00:39:34,430 --> 00:39:38,870 confounded little reason for this 593 00:39:35,900 --> 00:39:42,430 attempt to reach Mars and no assurance 594 00:39:38,870 --> 00:39:42,430 at all that it will even be successful 595 00:39:43,720 --> 00:39:51,290 at Los Alamos National Lab Project Rover 596 00:39:47,540 --> 00:39:53,810 begins it's an effort to harness nuclear 597 00:39:51,290 --> 00:39:54,270 fission to drive spaceships at constant 598 00:39:53,810 --> 00:39:57,389 thrust 599 00:39:54,270 --> 00:39:57,389 [Music] 600 00:39:58,570 --> 00:40:05,549 project Orion a different approach to 601 00:40:01,270 --> 00:40:08,279 nuclear rockets starts testing hardware 602 00:40:05,549 --> 00:40:12,380 the idea is to detonate atomic bombs 603 00:40:08,279 --> 00:40:12,380 behind a ship to push it along 604 00:40:15,570 --> 00:40:22,059 it's called post plasma-wave propulsion 605 00:40:18,860 --> 00:40:22,059 [Music] 606 00:40:23,090 --> 00:40:29,160 outrageous as it seems this method could 607 00:40:26,250 --> 00:40:33,630 offer rapid transport to Mars and the 608 00:40:29,160 --> 00:40:35,850 rest of the solar system the u.s. 609 00:40:33,630 --> 00:40:39,660 nuclear engine for rocket vehicle 610 00:40:35,850 --> 00:40:45,060 application Nerva program accumulates 17 611 00:40:39,660 --> 00:40:49,630 hours of live engine test time it raises 612 00:40:45,060 --> 00:40:55,510 hopes for Mars missions and moon bases 613 00:40:49,630 --> 00:40:57,830 [Music] 614 00:40:55,510 --> 00:41:00,170 in the Soviet Union 615 00:40:57,830 --> 00:41:03,250 engineers are working on nuclear thermal 616 00:41:00,170 --> 00:41:03,250 rockets of their own 617 00:41:07,480 --> 00:41:15,250 Soviet leaders have the specific goal of 618 00:41:10,549 --> 00:41:15,250 making Mars a politically red planet 619 00:41:17,380 --> 00:41:22,089 [Music] 620 00:41:19,240 --> 00:41:24,780 the Soviets try several times to send 621 00:41:22,089 --> 00:41:24,780 probes to Mars 622 00:41:24,950 --> 00:41:30,290 [Music] 623 00:41:26,930 --> 00:41:34,640 but they get no closer than 197 thousand 624 00:41:30,290 --> 00:41:35,290 kilometers and achieve very little 625 00:41:34,640 --> 00:41:38,510 science 626 00:41:35,290 --> 00:41:38,510 [Music] 627 00:41:41,099 --> 00:41:47,710 someday a manned trip to Mars and return 628 00:41:44,349 --> 00:41:51,070 may become the mission assignment to 629 00:41:47,710 --> 00:41:53,490 answer that challenge craft Araki a 630 00:41:51,070 --> 00:41:56,320 visionary German American engineer 631 00:41:53,490 --> 00:41:59,800 introduces the idea of ganging together 632 00:41:56,320 --> 00:42:01,990 clusters of nuclear rockets he argues 633 00:41:59,800 --> 00:42:04,660 that his modular approach could bring 634 00:42:01,990 --> 00:42:09,310 Mars and Venus within reach as early as 635 00:42:04,660 --> 00:42:11,440 the 1970s Erik a passionately believes 636 00:42:09,310 --> 00:42:15,540 that human expansion throughout the 637 00:42:11,440 --> 00:42:19,000 solar system is a fundamental right and 638 00:42:15,540 --> 00:42:21,970 that we are at our most dignified when 639 00:42:19,000 --> 00:42:24,730 we apply the laws of physics to elevate 640 00:42:21,970 --> 00:42:30,900 and protect human freedom 641 00:42:24,730 --> 00:42:34,119 [Music] 642 00:42:30,900 --> 00:42:36,090 just days before Apollo 11s lunar 643 00:42:34,119 --> 00:42:40,550 landing 644 00:42:36,090 --> 00:42:44,910 a monstrous moon bound Soviet n1 rocket 645 00:42:40,550 --> 00:42:49,509 rises 200 meters only to shut down and 646 00:42:44,910 --> 00:42:51,789 crash completely destroying its launch 647 00:42:49,509 --> 00:42:56,639 it is one of the largest non-nuclear 648 00:42:51,789 --> 00:42:56,639 explosions that humans have ever made 649 00:42:56,830 --> 00:43:03,810 the n1 might have ferried six cosmonauts 650 00:42:59,770 --> 00:43:11,890 on Mars missions lasting 630 days using 651 00:43:03,810 --> 00:43:14,619 nuclear-powered upper stages but when 652 00:43:11,890 --> 00:43:17,259 the u.s. wins the moon race 653 00:43:14,619 --> 00:43:18,360 the Kremlin's interest in the red planet 654 00:43:17,259 --> 00:43:23,790 seems to evaporate 655 00:43:18,360 --> 00:43:23,790 [Music] 656 00:43:25,070 --> 00:43:34,330 Mariner six flies within 3437 kilometers 657 00:43:29,360 --> 00:43:34,330 of Mars equatorial region this same year 658 00:43:35,030 --> 00:43:42,200 and Mariner 7 sails past Mars South Pole 659 00:43:38,750 --> 00:43:45,220 finding the temperature of chilly - 125 660 00:43:42,200 --> 00:43:45,220 degrees Celsius 661 00:43:46,920 --> 00:43:53,070 with two moon landings fresh in mine 662 00:43:50,610 --> 00:44:01,110 the public expects NASA astronauts to go 663 00:43:53,070 --> 00:44:03,830 on to Mars but when Apollo 13 nearly 664 00:44:01,110 --> 00:44:03,830 ends in disaster 665 00:44:04,430 --> 00:44:08,610 President Richard Nixon fears the 666 00:44:06,960 --> 00:44:11,000 political consequences of another 667 00:44:08,610 --> 00:44:11,000 failure 668 00:44:11,020 --> 00:44:20,760 and tries to end the moon voyages 669 00:44:14,680 --> 00:44:23,920 [Music] 670 00:44:20,760 --> 00:44:27,730 Mariner 9 the first craft to orbit 671 00:44:23,920 --> 00:44:39,130 another planet finds conclusively Mars 672 00:44:27,730 --> 00:44:41,980 has no canals no cities no forests no as 673 00:44:39,130 --> 00:44:45,610 Apollo wines day no fun Brown proposes 674 00:44:41,980 --> 00:44:48,010 that Saturn five rockets lift the pieces 675 00:44:45,610 --> 00:44:52,540 of a pair of reusable nuclear-powered 676 00:44:48,010 --> 00:44:55,870 ships they would carry orbiters and 677 00:44:52,540 --> 00:45:01,960 surface expedition vehicles across the 678 00:44:55,870 --> 00:45:04,810 great void to Mars but Nixon shrinks the 679 00:45:01,960 --> 00:45:06,910 budget to only a space shuttle confining 680 00:45:04,810 --> 00:45:07,810 the human space program to low-earth 681 00:45:06,910 --> 00:45:10,330 orbit 682 00:45:07,810 --> 00:45:18,820 for what will turn out to be half a 683 00:45:10,330 --> 00:45:21,400 century in that time for United States 684 00:45:18,820 --> 00:45:23,880 Presidents will ask for Mars related 685 00:45:21,400 --> 00:45:23,880 programs 686 00:45:31,100 --> 00:45:47,880 [Music] 687 00:45:44,900 --> 00:45:52,800 but none will get much further than the 688 00:45:47,880 --> 00:45:54,900 planning stages there is growing 689 00:45:52,800 --> 00:45:57,330 suspicion among space advocates that 690 00:45:54,900 --> 00:45:59,850 large government space programs might be 691 00:45:57,330 --> 00:46:04,680 too slow and inefficient to ever get to 692 00:45:59,850 --> 00:46:09,210 Mars Engineers Robert Zubrin and David a 693 00:46:04,680 --> 00:46:14,010 Baker proposed Mars direct 694 00:46:09,210 --> 00:46:14,880 travel light they say and live off the 695 00:46:14,010 --> 00:46:19,199 land 696 00:46:14,880 --> 00:46:19,199 [Music] 697 00:46:19,240 --> 00:46:23,650 by making rocket fuel from the planet 698 00:46:22,160 --> 00:46:24,750 itself 699 00:46:23,650 --> 00:46:27,490 [Music] 700 00:46:24,750 --> 00:46:29,240 explorers could insure themselves a ride 701 00:46:27,490 --> 00:46:33,530 home 702 00:46:29,240 --> 00:46:38,610 [Music] 703 00:46:33,530 --> 00:46:40,590 by 1993 key ideas from Mars direct are 704 00:46:38,610 --> 00:46:43,820 finding their way into NASA's Mars 705 00:46:40,590 --> 00:46:43,820 design reference mission 706 00:46:45,910 --> 00:46:53,539 NASA will update the design for more 707 00:46:49,279 --> 00:46:57,799 times but consistent support for a 708 00:46:53,539 --> 00:47:00,670 direct affordable approach never fully 709 00:46:57,799 --> 00:47:05,699 materializes 710 00:47:00,670 --> 00:47:05,699 [Music] 711 00:47:05,820 --> 00:47:14,590 it's the private sectors turn the mars-1 712 00:47:12,280 --> 00:47:19,350 company starts taking applications for 713 00:47:14,590 --> 00:47:19,350 one-way journeys to colonize the planet 714 00:47:19,360 --> 00:47:27,620 so called Mars to stay programs could 715 00:47:22,760 --> 00:47:31,540 dramatically reduce travel outlays but 716 00:47:27,620 --> 00:47:31,540 at what cost in human terms 717 00:47:33,480 --> 00:47:39,000 the big established aerospace companies 718 00:47:36,579 --> 00:47:41,370 prefer to bring their crews back 719 00:47:39,000 --> 00:47:43,770 [Music] 720 00:47:41,370 --> 00:47:48,240 boeing's affordable Mars mission would 721 00:47:43,770 --> 00:47:53,040 send a solar electric sailing ship to 722 00:47:48,240 --> 00:47:57,270 reconnoitre from low orbit when all is 723 00:47:53,040 --> 00:48:02,010 ready explorers would descend 724 00:47:57,270 --> 00:48:02,010 protected by an inflated aeroshell 725 00:48:03,670 --> 00:48:08,190 touching down like the Apollo missions 726 00:48:08,990 --> 00:48:12,840 to find a previously landed habitat 727 00:48:11,450 --> 00:48:15,760 waiting 728 00:48:12,840 --> 00:48:18,320 [Music] 729 00:48:15,760 --> 00:48:23,980 they'd return like last century's 730 00:48:18,320 --> 00:48:27,730 moonwalkers for the long trip home 731 00:48:23,980 --> 00:48:30,770 [Music] 732 00:48:27,730 --> 00:48:35,180 Lockheed Martin proposes a Mars orbiting 733 00:48:30,770 --> 00:48:42,710 base camp it's smartly built by stacking 734 00:48:35,180 --> 00:48:47,320 pairs of modules two habitats two tank 735 00:48:42,710 --> 00:48:51,849 farms two rocket propulsion units 736 00:48:47,320 --> 00:48:51,849 redundancy for safety far from Earth 737 00:48:52,040 --> 00:49:00,180 [Music] 738 00:48:56,580 --> 00:49:07,390 astronauts make sorties to the surface 739 00:49:00,180 --> 00:49:09,850 with a single-stage lander but this 740 00:49:07,390 --> 00:49:17,620 surface to orbit shuttlecraft doesn't 741 00:49:09,850 --> 00:49:22,200 depend on fuel made on Mars Elon Musk 742 00:49:17,620 --> 00:49:22,200 goes public with his plan to settle Mars 743 00:49:22,260 --> 00:49:30,990 SpaceX has been developing a big 744 00:49:24,490 --> 00:49:33,420 reusable booster the Falcon heavy 745 00:49:30,990 --> 00:49:38,000 [Music] 746 00:49:33,420 --> 00:49:38,000 which could launch Apollo style missions 747 00:49:40,340 --> 00:49:47,040 Blue Origin led by Amazon founder Jeff 748 00:49:43,650 --> 00:49:50,180 Bezos has been quietly developing large 749 00:49:47,040 --> 00:49:50,180 boosters of its own 750 00:49:52,259 --> 00:49:59,220 blue intends nothing less than extending 751 00:49:55,599 --> 00:49:59,220 civilization into space 752 00:50:00,690 --> 00:50:06,369 [Music] 753 00:50:07,730 --> 00:50:16,950 Elon Musk super-sizes his already large 754 00:50:11,280 --> 00:50:19,160 vision SpaceX will build a big Falcon 755 00:50:16,950 --> 00:50:19,160 rocket 756 00:50:21,480 --> 00:50:25,020 it's designed to quickly fly between 757 00:50:24,000 --> 00:50:27,510 points on earth 758 00:50:25,020 --> 00:50:30,359 [Music] 759 00:50:27,510 --> 00:50:36,900 called massive payloads around the solar 760 00:50:30,359 --> 00:50:40,109 system and to transport people as many 761 00:50:36,900 --> 00:50:43,490 as 100 at a time to the surfaces of 762 00:50:40,109 --> 00:50:43,490 planets asteroids 763 00:50:46,539 --> 00:50:53,089 and of Mars 764 00:50:49,359 --> 00:50:56,380 SpaceX envisions complete terraforming 765 00:50:53,089 --> 00:50:56,380 of our neighbor world 766 00:50:58,600 --> 00:51:03,890 [Music] 767 00:51:04,400 --> 00:51:12,540 dream projects like these may make it to 768 00:51:08,250 --> 00:51:16,940 Mars but the old trickster planet lies 769 00:51:12,540 --> 00:51:18,960 in wait its surface is loaded with toxic 770 00:51:16,940 --> 00:51:21,270 caustic perchlorates 771 00:51:18,960 --> 00:51:29,430 the chemicals that give fireworks their 772 00:51:21,270 --> 00:51:33,630 bay and with a constant rain of cosmic 773 00:51:29,430 --> 00:51:38,370 rays and solar flares hurling highly 774 00:51:33,630 --> 00:51:42,530 energetic particles settlers would have 775 00:51:38,370 --> 00:51:42,530 to spend most of their time underground 776 00:51:43,190 --> 00:51:47,380 might it be better to investigate Mars 777 00:51:45,780 --> 00:51:48,930 through augmented reality 778 00:51:47,380 --> 00:51:53,740 [Music] 779 00:51:48,930 --> 00:51:58,300 or teleoperated robots artificial 780 00:51:53,740 --> 00:52:02,790 intelligence perhaps machines smart 781 00:51:58,300 --> 00:52:02,790 enough to terraform Mars on their own 782 00:52:04,219 --> 00:52:12,709 pioneers of the future could find a more 783 00:52:07,829 --> 00:52:12,709 comfortable planet ready-made for them 784 00:52:14,610 --> 00:52:19,659 [Music] 785 00:52:23,029 --> 00:52:29,940 in 2033 Mars will come into particularly 786 00:52:27,900 --> 00:52:33,750 favorable positioning for launching 787 00:52:29,940 --> 00:52:38,369 human exploration will we be ready to 788 00:52:33,750 --> 00:52:39,359 answer its call of nearly 50 missions 789 00:52:38,369 --> 00:52:43,490 launched to Mars 790 00:52:39,359 --> 00:52:43,490 more than half have failed 791 00:52:43,619 --> 00:52:49,259 the ones that succeeded conveyed the 792 00:52:47,039 --> 00:52:52,859 indelible impression of a desperate 793 00:52:49,259 --> 00:52:54,779 struggling planet the technically 794 00:52:52,859 --> 00:52:58,499 engineered salvation of this desert 795 00:52:54,779 --> 00:53:02,759 world as imagined by Percival Lowell may 796 00:52:58,499 --> 00:53:08,910 yet come to pass but if Mars is to live 797 00:53:02,759 --> 00:53:11,609 again it will be up to us we face a long 798 00:53:08,910 --> 00:53:16,979 difficult battle to reboot an entire 799 00:53:11,609 --> 00:53:25,849 world and Mars will no doubt change 800 00:53:16,979 --> 00:53:25,849 humanity even as humans change Mars 801 00:53:33,340 --> 00:53:53,690 [Music] 802 00:53:53,320 --> 00:54:01,539 [Applause] 803 00:53:53,690 --> 00:54:01,539 [Music]